A method of forming a hydrocarbon product and a protonation product comprises introducing C.sub.2H.sub.6 to a positive electrode of an electrochemical cell comprising the positive electrode, a negative electrode, and a proton-conducting membrane between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. The proton-conducting membrane comprises an electrolyte material having an ionic conductivity greater than or equal to about 10.sup.2 S/cm at one or more temperatures within a range of from about 150 C. to about 650 C. A potential difference is applied between the positive electrode and the negative electrode of the electrochemical cell to produce the hydrocarbon product and the protonation product. A C.sub.2H.sub.6 activation system and an electrochemical cell are also described.

Features for an aqueous reactor include a field generator. The field generator includes a series of parallel conductive plates including a series of intermediate neutral plates. The intermediate neutral plates are arranged in interleaved sets between an anode and a cathode. Other features of the aqueous reactor may include a sealed reaction vessel, fluid circulation manifold, electrical power modulator, vacuum port, and barrier membrane. Methods of using the field generator include immersion in an electrolyte solution and application of an external voltage and vacuum to generate hydrogen and oxygen gases. The reactor and related components can be arranged to produce gaseous fuel or liquid fuel. In one use, a mixture of a carbon based material and a liquid hydrocarbon is added. The preferred carbon based material is powdered coal.

Features for an aqueous reactor include a field generator. The field generator includes a series of parallel conductive plates including a series of intermediate neutral plates. The intermediate neutral plates are arranged in interleaved sets between an anode and a cathode. Other features of the aqueous reactor may include a sealed reaction vessel, fluid circulation manifold, electrical power modulator, vacuum port, and barrier membrane. Methods of using the field generator include immersion in an electrolyte solution and application of an external voltage and vacuum to generate hydrogen and oxygen gases. The reactor and related components can be arranged to produce gaseous fuel or liquid fuel. In one use, a mixture of a carbon based material and a liquid hydrocarbon is added. The preferred carbon based material is powdered coal.

Lignin is electro-oxidized to commercially useful products using a binary transition metal catalyst. In particular, the transition metal catalyst includes nickel or cobalt as a first metal and any other transition metal as a second metal. The binary catalyst system prevents poisoning of the catalyst, extending the useful life of the catalyst.

An improved process for forming a conjugated thiophene precursor is described as in the formation of an improved polymer prepared from the conjugated thiophene and an improved capacitor formed from the improved polymer. The improved process includes forming a thiophene mixture comprising thiophene monomer, unconjugated thiophene oligomer, optionally a solvent and heating the thiophene mixture at a temperature of at least 100 C. to no more than the lower of 250 C. or the boiling point of a component of said thiophene mixture with the lowest boiling point temperature.

An improved process for forming a conjugated thiophene precursor is described as in the formation of an improved polymer prepared from the conjugated thiophene and an improved capacitor formed from the improved polymer. The improved process includes forming a thiophene mixture comprising thiophene monomer, unconjugated thiophene oligomer, optionally a solvent and heating the thiophene mixture at a temperature of at least 100 C. to no more than the lower of 250 C. or the boiling point of a component of said thiophene mixture with the lowest boiling point temperature.

Described herein is a process for the reduction of carbon dioxide comprising: providing an electrochemical device comprising an anode, a cathode, and a polymeric anion exchange membrane therebetween, wherein the polymeric anion exchange membrane comprises an anion exchange polymer, wherein the anion exchange polymer comprises at least one positively charged group selected from a guanidinium, a guanidinium derivative, an N-alkyl conjugated heterocyclic cation, or combinations thereof; introducing a composition comprising carbon dioxide to the cathode; and applying electrical energy to the electrochemical device to effect electrochemical reduction of the carbon dioxide.

A method for depositing a catalyst layer onto a porous conductive substrate is provided. A catalyst ink is provided comprising catalyst particles suspended in a solvent. The catalyst ink is deposited onto a porous conductive substrate, wherein the solvent of the deposited catalyst ink is frozen. The frozen solvent is sublimated, leaving the catalyst layer.

A method for depositing a catalyst layer onto a porous conductive substrate is provided. A catalyst ink is provided comprising catalyst particles suspended in a solvent. The catalyst ink is deposited onto a porous conductive substrate, wherein the solvent of the deposited catalyst ink is frozen. The frozen solvent is sublimated, leaving the catalyst layer.

The desorbing process of the present disclosure includes a step of bringing a solution containing a hydrogenated aromatic compound, at least one of [P((CH.sub.2).sub.mCH.sub.3).sub.3((CH.sub.2).sub.nCH.sub.3) (5m24, 13n24)].sup.+ and [N((CH.sub.2).sub.mCH.sub.3).sub.3((CH.sub.2).sub.nCH.sub.3) (5m24, 13n24)].sup.+, and an anion into contact with an anode; and desorbing hydrogen from the hydrogenated aromatic compound.