Molten salt electrolytes are described for use in electrochemical synthesis of hydrocarbons from carboxylic acids. The molten salt electrolyte can be used to synthesize a wide variety of hydrocarbons with and without functional groups that have a broad range of applications. The molten salt can be used to synthesize saturated hydrocarbons, diols, alkylated aromatic compounds, as well as other types of hydrocarbons. The molten salt electrolyte increases the selectivity, yield, the energy efficiency and Coulombic efficiency of the electrochemical conversion of carboxylic acids to hydrocarbons while reducing the cell potential required to perform the oxidation.

Molten salt electrolytes are described for use in electrochemical synthesis of hydrocarbons from carboxylic acids. The molten salt electrolyte can be used to synthesize a wide variety of hydrocarbons with and without functional groups that have a broad range of applications. The molten salt can be used to synthesize saturated hydrocarbons, diols, alkylated aromatic compounds, as well as other types of hydrocarbons. The molten salt electrolyte increases the selectivity, yield, the energy efficiency and Coulombic efficiency of the electrochemical conversion of carboxylic acids to hydrocarbons while reducing the cell potential required to perform the oxidation.

A method of producing isolated graphene sheets from a layered graphite, comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation which uses a liquid solution of an alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent as both an electrolyte and an intercalate source, layered graphite material as an anode material, and a metal or graphite as a cathode material, and wherein a current is imposed upon a cathode and an anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting the electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into interlayer spacing; and (b) exfoliating and separating hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (graphene planes) from the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof to produce isolated graphene sheets.

A method of producing isolated graphene sheets from a layered graphite, comprising: (a) forming an alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound by an electrochemical intercalation which uses a liquid solution of an alkali metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent as both an electrolyte and an intercalate source, layered graphite material as an anode material, and a metal or graphite as a cathode material, and wherein a current is imposed upon a cathode and an anode at a current density for a duration of time sufficient for effecting the electrochemical intercalation of alkali metal ions into interlayer spacing; and (b) exfoliating and separating hexagonal carbon atomic interlayers (graphene planes) from the alkali metal ion-intercalated graphite compound using ultrasonication, thermal shock exposure, exposure to water solution, mechanical shearing treatment, or a combination thereof to produce isolated graphene sheets.

A bioelectrochemical reactor (1) has an anode chamber (11) having at least two bioanodes (12, 13), and an anodic electrolyte (14) with an anodic electroactive microorganisms,—a cathode chamber (21) with at least one biocathode (22), and a cathodic electrolyte (24) with a cathodic electroactive microorganisms. The anode chamber (11) is separated from the cathode chamber (21) by, running from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber, a cation exchange membrane (31) and an anion exchange membrane (32). The cation and anion exchange membranes are separated from each other by an inter-membrane chamber (30), and means for applying a potential difference between the interconnected bioanodes and the biocathode/biocathodes. The bioanodes and biocathode/biocathodes have active surfaces such that the total active surface of the biocathode/biocathodes (22) is greater than the total active surface of the two bioanodes (12, 13). The arrangement includes a method for regenerating the activity of the bioanodes of the reactor and to the use of said reactor for the electrosynthesis of organic acids and/or alcohols from organic waste.

Selectively controllable cleavable linkers include electrochemically-cleavable linkers, photolabile linkers, thermolabile linkers, chemically-labile linkers, and enzymatically-cleavable linkers. Selective cleavage of individual linkers may be controlled by changing local conditions. Local conditions may be changed by activating electrodes in proximity to the linkers, exposing the linkers to light, heating the linkers, or applying chemicals. Selective cleaving of enzymatically-cleavable linkers may be controlled by designing the sequences of different sets of the individual linkers to respond to different enzymes. Cleavable linkers may be used to attach polymers to a solid substrate. Selective cleavage of the linkers enables release of specific polymers from the solid substrate. Cleavable linkers may also be used to attach protecting groups to the ends of growing polymers. The protecting groups may be selectively removed by cleavage of the linkers to enable growth of specific polymers.

A hydrogel is formed by a reaction which is induced, in an electrolytic solution, by an electrode product electrochemically generated by electrodes installed in the electrolytic solution. An apparatus including an electrolytic tank with a bottom surface on which a two-dimensional array of working electrodes is provided and a counter electrode installed in the electrolytic tank is prepared. An electrolytic solution containing a dissolved substance that causes electrolytic deposition of a hydrogel is housed in the electrolytic tank. By applying a predetermined voltage to one or more selected working electrodes of the two-dimensional array, a hydrogel with a two-dimensional pattern corresponding to the arrangement of the selected working electrodes is formed.

A hydrogel is formed by a reaction which is induced, in an electrolytic solution, by an electrode product electrochemically generated by electrodes installed in the electrolytic solution. An apparatus including an electrolytic tank with a bottom surface on which a two-dimensional array of working electrodes is provided and a counter electrode installed in the electrolytic tank is prepared. An electrolytic solution containing a dissolved substance that causes electrolytic deposition of a hydrogel is housed in the electrolytic tank. By applying a predetermined voltage to one or more selected working electrodes of the two-dimensional array, a hydrogel with a two-dimensional pattern corresponding to the arrangement of the selected working electrodes is formed.

A hydrogel is formed by a reaction which is induced, in an electrolytic solution, by an electrode product electrochemically generated by electrodes installed in the electrolytic solution. An apparatus including an electrolytic tank with a bottom surface on which a two-dimensional array of working electrodes is provided and a counter electrode installed in the electrolytic tank is prepared. An electrolytic solution containing a dissolved substance that causes electrolytic deposition of a hydrogel is housed in the electrolytic tank. By applying a predetermined voltage to one or more selected working electrodes of the two-dimensional array, a hydrogel with a two-dimensional pattern corresponding to the arrangement of the selected working electrodes is formed.

Systems and methods for the electrochemical conversion of COT to multi-carbon products are provided. Each system and method comprises a sequence of multiple, independently optimized electrochemical reaction steps that take place in separate reaction chambers.