Systems and methods are described for producing lithium hydroxide from lithium chloride and sodium chloride through an electrolysis process. A solution of lithium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide may be produced through electrolysis of a lithium chloride and sodium chloride solution. Lithium hydroxide in the produced solution may then be crystallized and filtered out to produce substantially pure lithium hydroxide crystals.

Systems and methods are described for producing lithium hydroxide from lithium chloride and sodium chloride through an electrolysis process. A solution of lithium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide may be produced through electrolysis of a lithium chloride and sodium chloride solution. Lithium hydroxide in the produced solution may then be crystallized and filtered out to produce substantially pure lithium hydroxide crystals.

Improvements in an electrolysis electrode structure where fluid or gas enters a chamber with cathode and anode charged conductors to polarize and separate the flow into two separate paths for electrolysis of the fluid or gas. The conductors wrap around magnets to extend the range of the polarizing field beyond the range of the electrode conductors. Iron particles fan-out from the conductors and magnets to further extend the polarizing field from the magnets as well as creating increased surface area for gas or liquids to flow within and around the conductors, magnet and iron particles. Noble metal provides a thin plating that locks the position of the particles and provides an open structure to allow for the flow of gas or fluids at a high rate of flow and prevents the iron particles from being eroded by the flow.

Improvements in an electrolysis electrode structure where fluid or gas enters a chamber with cathode and anode charged conductors to polarize and separate the flow into two separate paths for electrolysis of the fluid or gas. The conductors wrap around magnets to extend the range of the polarizing field beyond the range of the electrode conductors. Iron particles fan-out from the conductors and magnets to further extend the polarizing field from the magnets as well as creating increased surface area for gas or liquids to flow within and around the conductors, magnet and iron particles. Noble metal provides a thin plating that locks the position of the particles and provides an open structure to allow for the flow of gas or fluids at a high rate of flow and prevents the iron particles from being eroded by the flow.

This disclosure provides systems, methods, and apparatus related to nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayers. In one aspect, a structure comprises an assembly and a layer of ligands disposed on a surface of the assembly. The assembly comprises a plurality of metal nanoparticles. The metal nanoparticles of the plurality of metal nanoparticles in the assembly are proximate one another. The layer of ligands is operable to detach from the surface of the assembly but to remain proximate the surface of the assembly when the assembly is disposed in an electrolyte and a negative bias is applied to the assembly. An interlayer forms between the assembly and the layer of ligands, with the interlayer comprising desolvated cations from the electrolyte.

This disclosure provides systems, methods, and apparatus related to nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayers. In one aspect, a structure comprises an assembly and a layer of ligands disposed on a surface of the assembly. The assembly comprises a plurality of metal nanoparticles. The metal nanoparticles of the plurality of metal nanoparticles in the assembly are proximate one another. The layer of ligands is operable to detach from the surface of the assembly but to remain proximate the surface of the assembly when the assembly is disposed in an electrolyte and a negative bias is applied to the assembly. An interlayer forms between the assembly and the layer of ligands, with the interlayer comprising desolvated cations from the electrolyte.

The present disclosure relates to a method of making one or more PAA-coated silver nanoparticles, including: heating an aqueous solution including a silver source material such as silver nitrate, a reducing agent such as monoethanolamine, and a capping molecule such as PAA under conditions suitable for forming a reaction mixture; and contacting the reaction mixture with an antisolvent to form one or more PAA-coated silver nanoparticles. In embodiments, the present disclosure includes a cathode catalyst, including: one or more substantially monodisperse PAA-coated silver nanoparticles, as well as cathodes and electrochemical cells including the PAA-coated silver nanoparticles.

The present disclosure relates to a method of making one or more PAA-coated silver nanoparticles, including: heating an aqueous solution including a silver source material such as silver nitrate, a reducing agent such as monoethanolamine, and a capping molecule such as PAA under conditions suitable for forming a reaction mixture; and contacting the reaction mixture with an antisolvent to form one or more PAA-coated silver nanoparticles. In embodiments, the present disclosure includes a cathode catalyst, including: one or more substantially monodisperse PAA-coated silver nanoparticles, as well as cathodes and electrochemical cells including the PAA-coated silver nanoparticles.

An electrochemical reactor comprising an electrolyte compartment wherein at least one of the side walls of the electrolyte compartment is an electrode and an opposite side wall comprises a separator element. Further there is a plurality of electrically conductive granules forming a working electrode for a electrochemical main reaction in the electrolyte compartment and enclosed in the electrolyte compartment. The granules comprise a first material exhibiting at least a first activation overpotential for an electrochemical side reaction within a distance d from the separator element. The electrochemical reactor comprises a spacer element for maintaining the granules at least at a distance d from the separator element on the electrolyte-facing side of the separator element. The spacer element is electrically conductive and comprises a second material exhibiting a second activation overpotential for the electrochemical side reaction within a distance d from the separator element and is larger than the first activation overpotential.

An electrochemical reactor comprising an electrolyte compartment wherein at least one of the side walls of the electrolyte compartment is an electrode and an opposite side wall comprises a separator element. Further there is a plurality of electrically conductive granules forming a working electrode for a electrochemical main reaction in the electrolyte compartment and enclosed in the electrolyte compartment. The granules comprise a first material exhibiting at least a first activation overpotential for an electrochemical side reaction within a distance d from the separator element. The electrochemical reactor comprises a spacer element for maintaining the granules at least at a distance d from the separator element on the electrolyte-facing side of the separator element. The spacer element is electrically conductive and comprises a second material exhibiting a second activation overpotential for the electrochemical side reaction within a distance d from the separator element and is larger than the first activation overpotential.