Methods and apparatus for converting kinetic energy of an energetic particle into electrical energy and for accelerating charged particles. A stack of substantially parallel conductors separated by gaps is disposed such that the conductors are substantially parallel to the surface of a cathode, with the conductors mutually electrically uncoupled. An anode is disposed at an end of the stack of conductors distal to the cathode, and a power management system applies a bias voltage between the cathode and the anode and collects charge deposited at the anode in the form of current in an external electrical circuit.

A composition comprising a heat transfer portion and a lubricating portion, wherein the lubricating portion comprises one or more compounds according to formula (I): wherein W is independently selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br and I; Y is independently selected from the group consisting of F, Cl, Br and I; Z is independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, (CW.sub.2).sub.PCW.sub.3, CY.sub.3, OCW.sub.3, O(CW.sub.2).sub.pCW.sub.3, OCW((CY.sub.2).sub.mCY.sub.3)CWCW.sub.2, polyalkylene glycol and polyolester; n is an integer from 2 to 250; m is an integer from 0 to 3; and p is an integer from 0 to 9.

An aspect of the present invention provides a refrigerating machine oil containing: a lubricating base oil; and a polymer containing an unsaturated carboxylic acid ester as a monomer unit, wherein the unsaturated carboxylic acid ester contains an ester of an unsaturated carboxylic acid and an alcohol having a hydrocarbon group represented by the following formula (1):

##STR00001##

wherein x represents an integer of 5 to 18, and y represents an integer of 3 to 18.

The present invention relates to heat transfer compositions comprising refrigerant, lubricant and stabilizer, wherein the refrigerant comprises about 49% by weight difluoromethane (HFC-32), about 11.5% by weight pentafluoroethane (HFC-125), and about 39.5% by weight trifluoroiodomethane (CF.sub.3I), and wherein said lubricant comprises polyol ester (POE) lubricant and/or polyvinyl ether (PVE) lubricant, and wherein said stabilizer comprises an alkylated naphthalene and optionally but preferably an acid depleting moiety.

A compound of formula (I): wherein W is independently selected from the group consisting of H, F, CI, Br, and I; X is independently selected from the group consisting of H, F, CI, Br, and I; Y is independently selected from the group consisting of F, CI, Br, and I; Z is independently selected from the group consisting of H, F, CI, Br, and I; n is an integer from 1 to 8; and n′ is an integer from 1 to 12.

##STR00001##

The refrigeration oil composition for HFC-based refrigerants or HC-based refrigerants of the invention includes a product of the esterification of an alcohol ingredient including pentaerythritol and dipentaerythritol and a fatty acid ingredient including at least one of a linear or branched fatty acid having 5 carbon atoms and a linear or branched fatty acid having 6 carbon atoms and at least one of a linear or branched fatty acid having 8 carbon atoms and a linear or branched fatty acid having 9 carbon atoms, wherein at least one of the fatty acid having 5 carbon atoms and the fatty acid having 6 carbon atoms in the fatty acid ingredient accounts for 20 to 100% by mol of the total amount of the fatty acid ingredient, and either the alcohol ingredient or the fatty acid ingredient is a mixture.

A working fluid composition for a refrigerating machine comprises a refrigerant comprising monofluoroethane and a refrigerating machine oil comprising, as a base oil, at least one selected from a mineral oil having % C.sub.N in an n-d-M ring analysis of 10 to 60 and a pour point of −15° C. or lower and a synthetic hydrocarbon oil having a pour point of −15° C. or lower, and the refrigerating machine oil having a kinematic viscosity at 40° C. of 3 to 500 mm.sup.2/s.

The present invention provides a refrigerating machine oil comprising, as a base oil, a polymer having a structural unit represented by the following formula (1):

##STR00001##

wherein R.sup.1, R.sup.2 and R.sup.3, which may be the same as or different from each other, represent a hydrogen atom or a hydrocarbon group; and R.sup.4 represents a hydrocarbon group or an organic group containing an oxygen atom, and having a number average molecular weight Mn of 300 or more and 3000 or less and a ratio of a weight-average molecular weight Mw to a number average molecular weight Mn (Mw/Mn) of 1.10 or more and 2.00 or less, and the refrigerating machine oil being used with a refrigerant selected from the group consisting of difluoromethane, a mixture of difluoromethane and pentafluoroethane, a mixture of difluoromethane, pentafluoroethane and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, a mixture of pentafluoroethane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane and 1,1,1-trifluoroethane, unsaturated hydrofluorocarbons, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide.

A lubricating oil composition for refrigerating machines contains a base oil and an additive in a form of a hydrocarbon compound having a biphenyl structure or a stilbene structure. When the present lubricating oil composition for refrigerating machines is used in refrigerating equipment such as an open-type automobile air-conditioner, an electric automobile air-conditioner, a gas heat pump, other air-conditioning equipment, a refrigerating machine, a vending machine, a showcase, a water-heating system and a refrigerating/heating system, it is possible to detect the leakage of a refrigerant with a long-lasting stability. Therefore, when an unsaturated chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant with a poor stability is used in the above-listed equipment, the present lubricating oil composition for refrigerating machines is significantly advantageous.

The present invention relates to a refrigerant composition, including difluoromethane (HFC-32), pentafluoroethane (HFC-125), and trifluoroiodomethane (CF.sub.3I) for use in a heat exchange system, including air conditioning and refrigeration applications and in particular aspects to the use of such compositions as a replacement of the refrigerant R-410A for heating and cooling applications and to retrofitting heat exchange systems, including systems designed for use with R-410A.