Methods and systems for treating a hydrocarbon-bearing formation are provided. A method includes providing a nanogas dispersion comprising a plurality of stable gas-filled cavities dispersed within an electrochemically activated (ECA) aqueous solution, the ECA aqueous solution comprising an electrolyte and water; and introducing an effective amount of the nanogas dispersion into the hydrocarbon-bearing formation, wherein the plurality of stable gas-filled cavities of the nanogas dispersion enter into an interstitial space defined as between the hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon-bearing formation thereby reducing interfacial tension between the hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon-bearing formation. A system includes a pump configured to introduce the effective amount of the nanogas dispersion into the hydrocarbon-bearing formation; and a recovery device configured to collect the hydrocarbon from the hydrocarbon-bearing formation.

Methods and systems for treating a hydrocarbon-bearing formation are provided. A method includes providing a nanogas dispersion comprising a plurality of stable gas-filled cavities dispersed within an electrochemically activated (ECA) aqueous solution, the ECA aqueous solution comprising an electrolyte and water; and introducing an effective amount of the nanogas dispersion into the hydrocarbon-bearing formation, wherein the plurality of stable gas-filled cavities of the nanogas dispersion enter into an interstitial space defined as between the hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon-bearing formation thereby reducing interfacial tension between the hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon-bearing formation. A system includes a pump configured to introduce the effective amount of the nanogas dispersion into the hydrocarbon-bearing formation; and a recovery device configured to collect the hydrocarbon from the hydrocarbon-bearing formation.

A method for producing an alkali metal/alkaline earth metal hydroxide includes: subjecting a solution containing R.sup.ACOOM.sup.B and/or (R.sup.ACOO).sub.2M.sup.C and water to an electrochemical reaction to cause a Kolbe electrolysis reaction at an anode to generate at least R.sup.AR.sup.A, carbon dioxide, and an M.sup.B+ ion and/or M.sup.C2+ ion; and neutralizing the M.sup.B+ ion and/or M.sup.C2+ ion by using an OH.sup.? ion generated by electrolysis of water at a cathode. R.sup.A represents a hydrocarbon group, M.sup.B represents an alkali metal, and M.sup.C represents an alkaline earth metal.

A method for producing an alkali metal/alkaline earth metal hydroxide includes: subjecting a solution containing R.sup.ACOOM.sup.B and/or (R.sup.ACOO).sub.2M.sup.C and water to an electrochemical reaction to cause a Kolbe electrolysis reaction at an anode to generate at least R.sup.AR.sup.A, carbon dioxide, and an M.sup.B+ ion and/or M.sup.C2+ ion; and neutralizing the M.sup.B+ ion and/or M.sup.C2+ ion by using an OH.sup.? ion generated by electrolysis of water at a cathode. R.sup.A represents a hydrocarbon group, M.sup.B represents an alkali metal, and M.sup.C represents an alkaline earth metal.

Methods of producing sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lithium hydroxide (LiOH), and sulfuric acid (H.sub.2SO.sub.4), include generating sodium sulfate (Na.sub.2SO.sub.4) or lithium sulfate (Li.sub.2SO.sub.4) from battery manufacturing and recycling and converting the generated Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 or Li.sub.2SO.sub.4 to NaOH, LiOH, and H.sub.2SO.sub.4 via an electrochemical salt-splitting process. The processing steps can be carried out in a closed system such that the generated Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 or Li.sub.2SO.sub.4 can be used in the conversion process with optional purification steps. In particular, the LiOH, NaOH, and Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 are recycled into battery recycling or battery manufacturing processes.

This disclosure provides systems and methods for direct production of lithium hydroxide by utilizing cation selective, monovalent selective, or preferably lithium selective membranes. Lithium selective membranes possess high lithium selectivity over multivalent and other monovalent ions and thus prevent magnesium precipitation during electrodialysis (ED) and also address the presence of sodium in most naturally occurring brine or mineral based lithium production processes.

Methods comprise generating chlorine gas in a conversion process that converts metal chloride from an aqueous medium derived from a metal containing aqueous source into a hydroxide material; recovering the chlorine gas; and recovering bromine by reacting the chlorine gas with a bromide containing aqueous source. The methods and apparatus described herein also provide for removing sulfide species and/or organic species and/or transition metals, among others. The methods may be applicable for instance to lithium conversion and may be coupled to a direct extraction process for lithium extraction.

Methods comprise generating chlorine gas in a conversion process that converts metal chloride from an aqueous medium derived from a metal containing aqueous source into a hydroxide material; recovering the chlorine gas; and recovering bromine by reacting the chlorine gas with a bromide containing aqueous source. The methods and apparatus described herein also provide for removing sulfide species and/or organic species and/or transition metals, among others. The methods may be applicable for instance to lithium conversion and may be coupled to a direct extraction process for lithium extraction.

There are provided methods and systems for an electrochemical cell including an anode and a cathode where the anode is contacted with a metal ion that converts the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state. The metal ion in the higher oxidation state is reacted with hydrogen gas, an unsaturated hydrocarbon, and/or a saturated hydrocarbon to form products.

There are provided methods and systems for an electrochemical cell including an anode and a cathode where the anode is contacted with a metal ion that converts the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state. The metal ion in the higher oxidation state is reacted with hydrogen gas, an unsaturated hydrocarbon, and/or a saturated hydrocarbon to form products.