In an embodiment a reactor includes an electron source having a first gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) and configured to inject electrons into a fluid and a transportation system for the fluid configured to adjust a velocity of the fluid when passing the electron source, wherein the electron source is configured to provide the electrons to be injected into the fluid in an interior of the electron source and distant from the fluid, wherein the injected electrons are to initiate at least one chemical reaction in the fluid, wherein, when reaching the fluid, at least part of the injected electrons has a kinetic energy of at most 50 eV, wherein the electrons are propagatable only in solid matter from the interior until emission into the fluid, and wherein the GIS-EE includes an electrically conductive substrate, a transfer layer of a material with a band gap of at least 4 eV on the substrate, a gate electrode of a further electrically conductive material directly on the transfer layer, a first electrical connection structure on the substrate, and a second electrical connection structure on the gate electrode.

In an embodiment a reactor includes an electron source having a first gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) and configured to inject electrons into a fluid and a transportation system for the fluid configured to adjust a velocity of the fluid when passing the electron source, wherein the electron source is configured to provide the electrons to be injected into the fluid in an interior of the electron source and distant from the fluid, wherein the injected electrons are to initiate at least one chemical reaction in the fluid, wherein, when reaching the fluid, at least part of the injected electrons has a kinetic energy of at most 50 eV, wherein the electrons are propagatable only in solid matter from the interior until emission into the fluid, and wherein the GIS-EE includes an electrically conductive substrate, a transfer layer of a material with a band gap of at least 4 eV on the substrate, a gate electrode of a further electrically conductive material directly on the transfer layer, a first electrical connection structure on the substrate, and a second electrical connection structure on the gate electrode.

The following disclosure relates to an electrolytic cell or system that is configured to operate with the anode or oxygen side of the cell or stack of cells at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The system may include at least one electrolytic cell having a cathode, an anode, and a membrane separating the cathode and the anode. The system has an operating pressure on the cathode (hydrogen) side of the cell and an operating pressure on the anode (oxygen) side of the cell. The system is configured to operate with the operating pressure on the cathode side of the cell being greater than the operating pressure on the anode side of the cell. Further. the system is configured to operate with the operating pressure on the anode side of the cell being greater than 1 atm.

The following disclosure relates to an electrolytic cell or system that is configured to operate with the anode or oxygen side of the cell or stack of cells at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The system may include at least one electrolytic cell having a cathode, an anode, and a membrane separating the cathode and the anode. The system has an operating pressure on the cathode (hydrogen) side of the cell and an operating pressure on the anode (oxygen) side of the cell. The system is configured to operate with the operating pressure on the cathode side of the cell being greater than the operating pressure on the anode side of the cell. Further. the system is configured to operate with the operating pressure on the anode side of the cell being greater than 1 atm.

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to hydrogen recovery system (1) for extracting hydrogen from process gases. The hydrogen recovery system (1) may include an electrochemical pump (11) for extracting at least some of the hydrogen occurring in the process gases. The electrochemical pump (11) has an anodic compartment (13) having at least one anode (14), a cathodic compartment (15) having at least one cathode (16), and a membrane (17) disposed between the anodic compartment (13) and the cathodic compartment (15). A controller (59) is provided for controlling electric current supplied to the electrochemical pump (11). The anodic compartment (13) has an anodic compartment inlet (23) for introducing the process gases into the anodic compartment (13); and an anodic compartment outlet (25) for discharging a waste gas from the anodic compartment (13). The cathodic compartment (15) has a cathodic compartment outlet (27) for discharging hydrogen extracted from the process gases.

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to hydrogen recovery system (1) for extracting hydrogen from process gases. The hydrogen recovery system (1) may include an electrochemical pump (11) for extracting at least some of the hydrogen occurring in the process gases. The electrochemical pump (11) has an anodic compartment (13) having at least one anode (14), a cathodic compartment (15) having at least one cathode (16), and a membrane (17) disposed between the anodic compartment (13) and the cathodic compartment (15). A controller (59) is provided for controlling electric current supplied to the electrochemical pump (11). The anodic compartment (13) has an anodic compartment inlet (23) for introducing the process gases into the anodic compartment (13); and an anodic compartment outlet (25) for discharging a waste gas from the anodic compartment (13). The cathodic compartment (15) has a cathodic compartment outlet (27) for discharging hydrogen extracted from the process gases.

The fuel production system includes a CH.sub.4 recoverer, an electrolyzer, a liquid fuel producer, a steam reformer that performs steam reforming of the methane and produces hydrogen, and a controller. The controller includes: a heat amount determiner that determines whether or not an amount of heat required to increase a temperature in the gasification furnace to a temperature required to gasify the biomass feedstock is less than a predetermined threshold; a H.sub.2 production rate determiner that determines whether or not a production rate of hydrogen produced by the electrolyzer is equal to or greater than a predetermined threshold; and a steam reforming controller that controls the steam reformer to perform the steam reforming, and introduces the hydrogen produced, into the gasification furnace, in a case where the heat amount determiner determines that the required amount of heat for the gasification furnace is less than the predetermined threshold, and the H.sub.2 production rate determiner determines that the production rate of hydrogen is less than the predetermined threshold.

The fuel production system includes a CH.sub.4 recoverer, an electrolyzer, a liquid fuel producer, a steam reformer that performs steam reforming of the methane and produces hydrogen, and a controller. The controller includes: a heat amount determiner that determines whether or not an amount of heat required to increase a temperature in the gasification furnace to a temperature required to gasify the biomass feedstock is less than a predetermined threshold; a H.sub.2 production rate determiner that determines whether or not a production rate of hydrogen produced by the electrolyzer is equal to or greater than a predetermined threshold; and a steam reforming controller that controls the steam reformer to perform the steam reforming, and introduces the hydrogen produced, into the gasification furnace, in a case where the heat amount determiner determines that the required amount of heat for the gasification furnace is less than the predetermined threshold, and the H.sub.2 production rate determiner determines that the production rate of hydrogen is less than the predetermined threshold.

A system and apparatus operable for producing the HOCl and hydroxide solutions utilizing electricity and a mixture of water and brine in an electrolysis cell includes a fixed flow restrictor (FFR) operable for controlling at least one of a pH of the HOCl solution and a free available chlorine (FAC) in the HOCl solution. The FFR includes an insert having a fluid passageway with an inner diameter and length selected to control the pH and/or the FAC of the HOCl solution. A plurality of interchangeable FFRs or a multiple FFR manifold is provided so that the pH of the HOCl solution and/or the FAC of the HOCl solution can be precisely controlled. A self-balancing system and method optimizes the electrochemical production of HOCl and hydroxide solutions by the precise management and control of the water flow, electrolyte concentration and electric current variables in an EAW process.

A system and apparatus operable for producing the HOCl and hydroxide solutions utilizing electricity and a mixture of water and brine in an electrolysis cell includes a fixed flow restrictor (FFR) operable for controlling at least one of a pH of the HOCl solution and a free available chlorine (FAC) in the HOCl solution. The FFR includes an insert having a fluid passageway with an inner diameter and length selected to control the pH and/or the FAC of the HOCl solution. A plurality of interchangeable FFRs or a multiple FFR manifold is provided so that the pH of the HOCl solution and/or the FAC of the HOCl solution can be precisely controlled. A self-balancing system and method optimizes the electrochemical production of HOCl and hydroxide solutions by the precise management and control of the water flow, electrolyte concentration and electric current variables in an EAW process.