Thin freestanding nitride veneers can be used for the fabrication of semiconductor devices. These veneers are typically less than 100 microns thick. The use of thin veneers also eliminates the need for subsequent wafer thinning for improved thermal performance and 3D packaging.

In this photoelectric conversion element wherein group III-IV compound semiconductor single crystals containing zinc as an impurity are used as a substrate, the substrate is increased in size without lowering conversion efficiency. A heat-resistant crucible is filled with raw material and a sealant, and the raw material and sealant are heated, thereby melting the raw material into a melt, softening the encapsulant, and covering the melt from the top with the encapsulant. The temperature inside the crucible is controlled such that the temperature of the top of the encapsulant relative to the bottom of the encapsulant becomes higher in a range that not equal or exceed the temperature of bottom of the encapsulant, and seed crystal is dipped in the melt and pulled upward with respect to the melt, thereby growing single crystals from the seed crystal. Thus, a large compound semiconductor wafer that is at least two inches in diameter and has a low dislocation density of 5,000 cm.sup.−2 can be obtained, despite having a low average zinc concentration of 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 to 3×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, at which a crystal hardening effect does not manifest.

In this photoelectric conversion element wherein group III-IV compound semiconductor single crystals containing zinc as an impurity are used as a substrate, the substrate is increased in size without lowering conversion efficiency. A heat-resistant crucible is filled with raw material and a sealant, and the raw material and sealant are heated, thereby melting the raw material into a melt, softening the encapsulant, and covering the melt from the top with the encapsulant. The temperature inside the crucible is controlled such that the temperature of the top of the encapsulant relative to the bottom of the encapsulant becomes higher in a range that not equal or exceed the temperature of bottom of the encapsulant, and seed crystal is dipped in the melt and pulled upward with respect to the melt, thereby growing single crystals from the seed crystal. Thus, a large compound semiconductor wafer that is at least two inches in diameter and has a low dislocation density of 5,000 cm.sup.−2 can be obtained, despite having a low average zinc concentration of 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 to 3×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, at which a crystal hardening effect does not manifest.

In this photoelectric conversion element wherein group III-IV compound semiconductor single crystals containing zinc as an impurity are used as a substrate, the substrate is increased in size without lowering conversion efficiency. A heat-resistant crucible is filled with raw material and a sealant, and the raw material and sealant are heated, thereby melting the raw material into a melt, softening the encapsulant, and covering the melt from the top with the encapsulant. The temperature inside the crucible is controlled such that the temperature of the top of the encapsulant relative to the bottom of the encapsulant becomes higher in a range that not equal or exceed the temperature of bottom of the encapsulant, and seed crystal is dipped in the melt and pulled upward with respect to the melt, thereby growing single crystals from the seed crystal. Thus, a large compound semiconductor wafer that is at least two inches in diameter and has a low dislocation density of 5,000 cm.sup.−2 can be obtained, despite having a low average zinc concentration of 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 to 3×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, at which a crystal hardening effect does not manifest.

In this photoelectric conversion element wherein group III-IV compound semiconductor single crystals containing zinc as an impurity are used as a substrate, the substrate is increased in size without lowering conversion efficiency. A heat-resistant crucible is filled with raw material and a sealant, and the raw material and sealant are heated, thereby melting the raw material into a melt, softening the encapsulant, and covering the melt from the top with the encapsulant. The temperature inside the crucible is controlled such that the temperature of the top of the encapsulant relative to the bottom of the encapsulant becomes higher in a range that not equal or exceed the temperature of bottom of the encapsulant, and seed crystal is dipped in the melt and pulled upward with respect to the melt, thereby growing single crystals from the seed crystal. Thus, a large compound semiconductor wafer that is at least two inches in diameter and has a low dislocation density of 5,000 cm.sup.−2 can be obtained, despite having a low average zinc concentration of 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 to 3×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, at which a crystal hardening effect does not manifest.

The gallium arsenide single crystal substrate has a circular main surface, and when the diameter of the main surface of the gallium arsenide single crystal substrate is represented by D and the number of etch pits formed on the main surface by immersing the gallium arsenide single crystal substrate in molten potassium hydroxide at 500° C. for 10 minutes is counted, the number C.sub.1 of etch pits in a first circular region having a diameter of 0.2D around the center of the main surface is 0 or more and 10 or less.

The gallium arsenide single crystal substrate has a circular main surface, and when the diameter of the main surface of the gallium arsenide single crystal substrate is represented by D and the number of etch pits formed on the main surface by immersing the gallium arsenide single crystal substrate in molten potassium hydroxide at 500° C. for 10 minutes is counted, the number C.sub.1 of etch pits in a first circular region having a diameter of 0.2D around the center of the main surface is 0 or more and 10 or less.

Provided is a GaAs ingot with which a GaAs wafer having a carrier concentration of 5.5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or less and low dislocation density with an average dislocation density of 500/cm.sup.2 or less can be obtained by adding a small amount of In with Si. A seed side end and a center portion of a straight body part of the GaAs ingot each have a silicon concentration of 2.0×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or more and less than 1.5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, an indium concentration of 1.0×10.sup.17cm.sup.−3 or more and less than 6.5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, a carrier concentration of 5.5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or less, and an average dislocation density of 500/cm.sup.2 or less.

Provided is a GaAs ingot with which a GaAs wafer having a carrier concentration of 5.5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or less and low dislocation density with an average dislocation density of 500/cm.sup.2 or less can be obtained by adding a small amount of In with Si. A seed side end and a center portion of a straight body part of the GaAs ingot each have a silicon concentration of 2.0×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or more and less than 1.5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, an indium concentration of 1.0×10.sup.17cm.sup.−3 or more and less than 6.5×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, a carrier concentration of 5.5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 or less, and an average dislocation density of 500/cm.sup.2 or less.

A method of performing HVPE heteroepitaxy comprises exposing a substrate to a carrier gas, a first precursor gas, a Group II/III element, and ternary-forming gasses (V/VI group precursor), to form a heteroepitaxial growth of a binary, ternary, and/or quaternary compound on the substrate; wherein the carrier gas is H.sub.2, wherein the first precursor gas is HCl, the Group II/III element comprises at least one of Zn, Cd, Hg, Al, Ga, and In; and wherein the ternary-forming gasses comprise at least two or more of AsH.sub.3 (arsine), PH.sub.3 (phosphine), H.sub.2Se (hydrogen selenide), H.sub.2Te (hydrogen telluride), SbH.sub.3 (hydrogen antimonide, or antimony tri-hydride, or stibine), H.sub.2S (hydrogen sulfide), NH.sub.3 (ammonia), and HF (hydrogen fluoride); flowing the carrier gas over the Group II/III element; exposing the substrate to the ternary-forming gasses in a predetermined ratio of first ternary-forming gas to second ternary-forming gas (1tf:2tf ratio); and changing the 1tf:2tf ratio over time.