A method of production of malic acid includes treating a first intermediate product to form a second intermediate product. The treating includes substantially removing impurities from the first intermediate product to obtain a treated intermediate product by gas stripping the crude maleic anhydride, or subjecting a mixture of one or more of the crude maleic acid, the crude fumaric acid, and the vent gas scrubber solution obtained from a phthalic anhydride production process or a maleic anhydride production process to crystallization, passing an aqueous solution of the treated intermediate product through a carbon column to substantially remove retained impurities to form the second intermediate product, obtaining a feed that includes the second intermediate product, and causing the feed to undergo hydration reaction in a tubular reactor or a continuous stirred tank reactor to produce malic acid.

Compounds of formula (I) are photoinitiators or photosensitizers in a photopolymerizable composition: ##STR00001##
R.sub.1 represents a monovalent, linear, branched or cyclic, aliphatic hydrocarbon group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, optionally substituted with substituent(s) selected from —Cl, —Br, —OH, ═O, —NH—CO—OR.sub.2, —NH—CO—R.sub.2 or free-radically or ionically polymerizable groups. Each R.sub.2 is independently —H or C.sub.1-6 alkyl; n is ≥1. If n=1, Z and Y are absent and X represents —OR.sub.3; if n is >1, Z represents —OR.sub.4—, Y represents —OR.sub.5— and X represents —H or —OH. R.sub.3 represents —H or R.sub.1; and R.sub.4 and R.sub.5 each independently represent a bivalent hydrocarbon group. The polymerizable moieties as optional substituents of R.sub.1 are polymerizable double or triple bonds, lactam, lactone and epoxide moieties, which are subjectable to ring-opening polymerization; and two of R.sub.1 to R.sub.5 may be linked to one another to form a ring or a dimer.

Compounds of formula (I) are photoinitiators or photosensitizers in a photopolymerizable composition: ##STR00001##
R.sub.1 represents a monovalent, linear, branched or cyclic, aliphatic hydrocarbon group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, optionally substituted with substituent(s) selected from —Cl, —Br, —OH, ═O, —NH—CO—OR.sub.2, —NH—CO—R.sub.2 or free-radically or ionically polymerizable groups. Each R.sub.2 is independently —H or C.sub.1-6 alkyl; n is ≥1. If n=1, Z and Y are absent and X represents —OR.sub.3; if n is >1, Z represents —OR.sub.4—, Y represents —OR.sub.5— and X represents —H or —OH. R.sub.3 represents —H or R.sub.1; and R.sub.4 and R.sub.5 each independently represent a bivalent hydrocarbon group. The polymerizable moieties as optional substituents of R.sub.1 are polymerizable double or triple bonds, lactam, lactone and epoxide moieties, which are subjectable to ring-opening polymerization; and two of R.sub.1 to R.sub.5 may be linked to one another to form a ring or a dimer.

A liquid crystal aligning agent includes polymer(s) from at least one of polyamic acid and group of polyimides by ring closure thereof. The acid includes a first segment structure formed by first dianhydride of formula (I) and first diamine of formula (II) or (III). X.sub.1 is an amorphous first soft segment. L is single bond, double bond, divalent or trivalent hydrocarbon group having 1 to 3 Cs. Y.sub.1 is single bond, O, NH, S, unsaturated double bond(s), or aliphatic, aromatic, heterocyclic or fused ring. One A.sub.1 and one A.sub.2, combined with Y.sub.1, are each C. Remaining A.sub.1s and A.sub.2s are each CH, CR or N. Z.sub.1 is aliphatic, aromatic, heterocyclic or fused ring. A.sub.3s and A.sub.4s are each CH, CR or N. Neither of numbers of Ns in the A.sub.1s, A.sub.2s, A.sub.3s and A.sub.4s is more than two, R.sub.1, R.sub.2 and R are each hydrogen or aliphatic hydrocarbon group.

A transition metal-based heterogeneous carbonylation reaction catalyst has an excellent catalytic activity and selectivity in the carbonylation reaction and is easily separated from a product, by crosslinking polymerizing a transition metal-based homogeneous catalyst unit through a Friedel-Craft reaction. The catalyst may be used in a method for preparing lactone. The transition metal-based heterogeneous carbonylation reaction catalyst allows to produce lactone or succinic anhydride with an epoxide compound while showing a high selectivity, and can be applied in industrial very usefully due to easy separation from the product and thus reusing thereof.

A transition metal-based heterogeneous carbonylation reaction catalyst has an excellent catalytic activity and selectivity in the carbonylation reaction and is easily separated from a product, by crosslinking polymerizing a transition metal-based homogeneous catalyst unit through a Friedel-Craft reaction. The catalyst may be used in a method for preparing lactone. The transition metal-based heterogeneous carbonylation reaction catalyst allows to produce lactone or succinic anhydride with an epoxide compound while showing a high selectivity, and can be applied in industrial very usefully due to easy separation from the product and thus reusing thereof.

Methods are provided for modulating MRGPR X4 generally, or for treating a MRGPR X4 dependent condition more specifically, by contacting the MRGPR X4 or administering to a subject in need thereof, respectively, an effective amount of a compound having the structure of Formula (I): ##STR00001##
or a pharmaceutically acceptable isomer, racemate, hydrate, solvate, isotope, or salt thereof, wherein n, x, A, Q.sub.1, Q.sub.2, Z, R, R.sup.1, R.sup.2, R.sup.3, R.sup.4 and R.sup.5 are as defined herein. Pharmaceutical compositions containing such compounds, as well as to compounds themselves, are also provided.

Provided are compounds that target the lanthionine synthetase C-like protein 2 pathway. The compounds can be used to treat a number of conditions, including infectious disease, autoimmune disease, diabetes, and a chronic inflammatory disease.

Provided are compounds that target the lanthionine synthetase C-like protein 2 pathway. The compounds can be used to treat a number of conditions, including infectious disease, autoimmune disease, diabetes, and a chronic inflammatory disease.

Provided herein are compounds of formula (I) and compositions containing the compounds. The compounds and compositions are useful in the methods of treating, amelioration or prophylaxix of diseases associated with Nrf2/NF-.sub.κB pathways. The diseases associated include, but are not limited to a fibrotic disease such as lung fibrosis, liver fibrosis, kidney fibrosis, and scleroderma, or a neurodegenerative disease, such as multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Alzheimer's disease, and sickle cell disease.

##STR00001##