An example plasma confinement system includes an inner electrode having a rounded first end that is disposed on a longitudinal axis of the plasma confinement system and an outer electrode that at least partially surrounds the inner electrode. The outer electrode includes a solid conductive shell and an electrically conductive material disposed on the solid conductive shell and on the longitudinal axis of the plasma confinement system. The electrically conductive material has a melting point within a range of 170° C. to 800° C. at 1 atmosphere of pressure. Related plasma confinement systems and methods are also disclosed herein.

Disclosed are a superconductor having improved critical current density when exposed to high-energy neutron radiation and high magnetic fields, such as found in a compact nuclear fusion reactor, and a method of making the same. The method includes, prior to deployment in the exposure environment, irradiating a polycrystalline (e.g. cuprate) superconductor with ionic matter or neutrons at a cryogenic temperature to create “weak” magnetic flux pinning sites, such as point defects or small defect clusters. Irradiation temperature is chosen, for example as a function of the superconducting material, so that irradiation creates the beneficial flux pinning sites while avoiding detrimental widening of the boundaries of the crystalline grains caused by diffusion of the displaced atoms. Such a superconductor in a coated-conductor tape is expected to be beneficial when used, for example, as a toroidal field coil in a fusion reactor when cooled well below its critical temperature.

A fusion reactor includes a fusion plasma reactor chamber. A magnetic coil structure is disposed inside of the fusion plasma reactor chamber, and a structural component is also disposed inside of the fusion plasma reactor chamber. The structural component couples the magnetic coil structure to the fusion plasma reactor chamber. A superconducting material is disposed at least partially within the structural component. A plurality of cooling channels are disposed at least partially within the structural component. An insulating material is disposed at least partially within the structural component.

A fusion reactor includes a fusion plasma reactor chamber. A magnetic coil structure is disposed inside of the fusion plasma reactor chamber, and a structural component is also disposed inside of the fusion plasma reactor chamber. The structural component couples the magnetic coil structure to the fusion plasma reactor chamber. A superconducting material is disposed at least partially within the structural component. A plurality of cooling channels are disposed at least partially within the structural component. An insulating material is disposed at least partially within the structural component.

Methods and apparatus are disclosed for triggering an exothermic reaction under a high hydrogen loading rate. It is generally understood that a high hydrogen loading ratio is an important factor. The present application teaches that a high hydrogen loading rate, that is, achieving a high hydrogen loading ratio in a short period of time, is another important factor in determining whether excess heat can be observed in an exothermic reaction. The present application discloses methods and apparatus for achieving a high hydrogen loading rate in order to trigger an exothermic reaction.

Methods and apparatus are disclosed for triggering an exothermic reaction under a high hydrogen loading rate. It is generally understood that a high hydrogen loading ratio is an important factor. The present application teaches that a high hydrogen loading rate, that is, achieving a high hydrogen loading ratio in a short period of time, is another important factor in determining whether excess heat can be observed in an exothermic reaction. The present application discloses methods and apparatus for achieving a high hydrogen loading rate in order to trigger an exothermic reaction.

Disclosed herein is a stellarator comprising two sets of coils, namely a set of encircling coils which encircle the plasma axis, and a set of shaping coils which do not encircle any other coil or the plasma. In some embodiments, the encircling coils include a structural element to maintain their shape under magnetic forces. In some embodiments, the shaping coils are mounted onto one or more structural elements which, together with the shaping coils, constitute a field shaping unit. Also disclosed is a controller which may modify the electrical current flowing in one or more subsets of the coils in order to achieve target plasma parameters. Also disclosed is a method of designing a set of shaping coils by discretizing a surface dipole or current potential distribution.

Methods and systems are provided for plasma confinement utilizing various electrode and valve configurations. In one example, a device includes a first electrode positioned to define an outer boundary of an acceleration volume, a second electrode arranged coaxially with respect to the first electrode and positioned to define an inner boundary of the acceleration volume, at least one power supply to drive an electric current along a Z-pinch plasma column between the first second electrodes, and a set of valves to provide gas to the acceleration volume to fuel the Z-pinch plasma column, wherein an electron flow of the electric current is in a first direction from the second electrode to the first electrode. In additional or alternative examples, a shaping part is conductively connected to the second electrode to, in a presence of the gas, cause a gas breakdown of the gas to generate a sheared flow velocity profile.

A method and an apparatus are provided for performing a fusion reaction. The method comprises providing neutral gas within a gas chamber, supplying energy to the gas chamber to initiate heating of a cathode and ionization of the neutral gas into protons and electrons, causing formation of a conducting channel due to the ionized neutral gas, causing formation of an electron layer outside the cathode based on set of thermionically emitted electrons by the heated cathode, causing acceleration of the electrons towards the cathode to cause the heated cathode to emit a set of secondary electrons due to a potential associated with the electron layer. The set of secondary electrons enhance strength of the electron layer. The method comprises causing formation of an electrostatic potential profile with dips and peaks, due to an electron-ion two-stream instability. The protons are accelerated towards the cathode at peaks and bombardment of the protons into the cathode enables fusion reaction.

A method and an apparatus are provided for performing a fusion reaction. The method comprises providing neutral gas within a gas chamber, supplying energy to the gas chamber to initiate heating of a cathode and ionization of the neutral gas into protons and electrons, causing formation of a conducting channel due to the ionized neutral gas, causing formation of an electron layer outside the cathode based on set of thermionically emitted electrons by the heated cathode, causing acceleration of the electrons towards the cathode to cause the heated cathode to emit a set of secondary electrons due to a potential associated with the electron layer. The set of secondary electrons enhance strength of the electron layer. The method comprises causing formation of an electrostatic potential profile with dips and peaks, due to an electron-ion two-stream instability. The protons are accelerated towards the cathode at peaks and bombardment of the protons into the cathode enables fusion reaction.