A transmission calorimeter for measuring the dose of a beam of radiation includes a core for receiving and transmitting said radiation along a radiation path which passes through said core and at least one sensor for measuring the temperature change of the core, wherein the energy of said radiation absorbed by the calorimeter is less than or equal to the energy that would be absorbed by transmitting said radiation through 2 mm of water.

An optical fiber-based gamma-ray calorimeter (OFBGC) sensor array which uses a thermal mass with a low thermal conductivity is provided. Advantages of the OFBGC sensor array include: 1) the number of sensors in the OFBGC sensor array is adjustable and limited only by the spatial resolution of the OFBGC sensors, within the OFBGC sensor array, and 2) the OFBGC sensor design is simpler to build than a conventional optical fiber-based gamma thermometer (OFBGT) sensor array. One purpose of the OFBGC is to determine the power distribution in nuclear reactors.

An optical fiber-based gamma-ray calorimeter (OFBGC) sensor array which uses a thermal mass with a low thermal conductivity is provided. Advantages of the OFBGC sensor array include: 1) the number of sensors in the OFBGC sensor array is adjustable and limited only by the spatial resolution of the OFBGC sensors, within the OFBGC sensor array, and 2) the OFBGC sensor design is simpler to build than a conventional optical fiber-based gamma thermometer (OFBGT) sensor array. One purpose of the OFBGC is to determine the power distribution in nuclear reactors.

A measuring tool (1) for measuring a delivered dose of radiation emitted by at least one electron beam emitter (2a-b) in an irradiation area (2) used to sterilise packaging material to be later formed into a package is provided. The measuring tool (1) comprises: at least one transducer (3) configured to convert a characteristic of the delivered dose of radiation to another characteristic; a frame (5) configured to hold the at least one transducer (3) and insert the at least one transducer (3) into the irradiation area (2); and at least one connector (7) configured to allow signal transfer from the at least one transducer (3) to a read-out system (9) remote of the irradiation area (2). Use of said tool and a method for calibrating a radiation dose emitted by at least one electron beam emitter (2a-b) in an irradiation area (2) used to sterilise packaging material to be later formed into a package are also provided.

A measuring tool (1) for measuring a delivered dose of radiation emitted by at least one electron beam emitter (2a-b) in an irradiation area (2) used to sterilise packaging material to be later formed into a package is provided. The measuring tool (1) comprises: at least one transducer (3) configured to convert a characteristic of the delivered dose of radiation to another characteristic; a frame (5) configured to hold the at least one transducer (3) and insert the at least one transducer (3) into the irradiation area (2); and at least one connector (7) configured to allow signal transfer from the at least one transducer (3) to a read-out system (9) remote of the irradiation area (2). Use of said tool and a method for calibrating a radiation dose emitted by at least one electron beam emitter (2a-b) in an irradiation area (2) used to sterilise packaging material to be later formed into a package are also provided.

A method for monitoring precipitation of magnetospheric particles includes detecting charged magnetospheric particles by a particles detector, processing the detection data to associate a respective estimate or measurement of kinetic energy with the detected magnetospheric particles, obtaining a first count value N.sub.H associated with a relatively higher estimate or measurement of kinetic energy, obtaining a second count value N.sub.L associated with a relatively lower estimate or measurement of kinetic energy, detecting a relative variation of the second count value N.sub.L with respect to the first count value N.sub.H, determining that an impulsive event of precipitation of charged magnetospheric particles (MPP event) in the magnetosphere occurred, assigning to the MPP event geomagnetic longitude and time, defining one or more groups of MPP events occurred in a time range at a same geomagnetic longitude, and identifying a group of MPP events indicative of an activity of terrestrial origin.

A method for monitoring precipitation of magnetospheric particles includes detecting charged magnetospheric particles by a particles detector, processing the detection data to associate a respective estimate or measurement of kinetic energy with the detected magnetospheric particles, obtaining a first count value N.sub.H associated with a relatively higher estimate or measurement of kinetic energy, obtaining a second count value N.sub.L associated with a relatively lower estimate or measurement of kinetic energy, detecting a relative variation of the second count value N.sub.L with respect to the first count value N.sub.H, determining that an impulsive event of precipitation of charged magnetospheric particles (MPP event) in the magnetosphere occurred, assigning to the MPP event geomagnetic longitude and time, defining one or more groups of MPP events occurred in a time range at a same geomagnetic longitude, and identifying a group of MPP events indicative of an activity of terrestrial origin.

Methods of measuring a radiation dose implement and/or comprise measuring a first value of a mass of a sample, wherein the sample includes a polylactic acid (PLA) resin, and wherein the sample has been subjected to the radiation dose; immersing the sample in a solvent at a predetermined temperature for a first predetermined period of time; removing the sample from the solvent after the first predetermined period of time has elapsed; measuring a second value of the mass of the sample; and outputting a measurement of the radiation dose based on the first value and the second value.

Methods of measuring a radiation dose implement and/or comprise measuring a first value of a mass of a sample, wherein the sample includes a polylactic acid (PLA) resin, and wherein the sample has been subjected to the radiation dose; immersing the sample in a solvent at a predetermined temperature for a first predetermined period of time; removing the sample from the solvent after the first predetermined period of time has elapsed; measuring a second value of the mass of the sample; and outputting a measurement of the radiation dose based on the first value and the second value.