A battery may include an anode, a cathode positioned opposite to the anode, a separator positioned between the anode and the cathode, an electrolyte dispersed throughout the cathode and in contact with the anode, and a dual-pore system. The anode may be configured to release a plurality of lithium ions. The cathode may include a plurality of pathways defined by a plurality of porous non-hollow carbonaceous spherical particles and may include a plurality of carbonaceous structures each based on a coalescence of a group of the porous non-hollow carbonaceous spherical particles. The dual-pore system may be disposed in the cathode and defined in shape and orientation by the plurality of carbonaceous structures. In some aspects, the dual-pore system may be configured to receive gaseous oxygen from the ambient atmosphere.

A battery may include an anode, a cathode positioned opposite to the anode, a separator positioned between the anode and the cathode, an electrolyte dispersed throughout the cathode and in contact with the anode, and a dual-pore system. The anode may be configured to release a plurality of lithium ions. The cathode may include a plurality of pathways defined by a plurality of porous non-hollow carbonaceous spherical particles and may include a plurality of carbonaceous structures each based on a coalescence of a group of the porous non-hollow carbonaceous spherical particles. The dual-pore system may be disposed in the cathode and defined in shape and orientation by the plurality of carbonaceous structures. In some aspects, the dual-pore system may be configured to receive gaseous oxygen from the ambient atmosphere.

A composite membrane includes: an organic layer including a plurality of through holes; and ion conductive inorganic particles disposed in the plurality of through holes, wherein the ion conductive inorganic particles each include at least one recess, at least one protrusion, or a combination thereof on a surface thereof, and wherein the surface of the ion conductive inorganic particles which comprises the at least one recess, the at least one protrusion, or the combination thereof faces a surface of the organic layer.

A composite membrane includes: an organic layer including a plurality of through holes; and ion conductive inorganic particles disposed in the plurality of through holes, wherein the ion conductive inorganic particles each include at least one recess, at least one protrusion, or a combination thereof on a surface thereof, and wherein the surface of the ion conductive inorganic particles which comprises the at least one recess, the at least one protrusion, or the combination thereof faces a surface of the organic layer.

Provided is a layered double hydroxide (LDH) separator including a porous substrate made of a polymeric material; and a hydroxide-ion conductive layered compound being a LDH and/or a LDH-like compound with which pores of the porous substrate are plugged. The LDH separator has a mean porosity of 0.03% to less than 1.0%.

Separator systems for electrochemical systems providing electronic, mechanical and chemical properties useful for applications including electrochemical storage and conversion. Separator systems include structural, physical and electrostatic attributes useful for managing and controlling dendrite formation and for improving the cycle life and rate capability of electrochemical cells including silicon anode based batteries, air cathode based batteries, redox flow batteries, solid electrolyte based systems, fuel cells, flow batteries and semisolid batteries. Separators include multilayer, porous geometries supporting excellent ion transport properties, providing a barrier to prevent dendrite initiated mechanical failure, shorting or thermal runaway, or providing improved electrode conductivity and improved electric field uniformity, as well as composite solid electrolytes with supporting mesh or fiber systems providing solid electrolyte hardness and safety with supporting mesh or fiber toughness and long life required for thin solid electrolytes without fabrication pinholes or operationally created cracks.

Separator systems for electrochemical systems providing electronic, mechanical and chemical properties useful for applications including electrochemical storage and conversion. Separator systems include structural, physical and electrostatic attributes useful for managing and controlling dendrite formation and for improving the cycle life and rate capability of electrochemical cells including silicon anode based batteries, air cathode based batteries, redox flow batteries, solid electrolyte based systems, fuel cells, flow batteries and semisolid batteries. Separators include multilayer, porous geometries supporting excellent ion transport properties, providing a barrier to prevent dendrite initiated mechanical failure, shorting or thermal runaway, or providing improved electrode conductivity and improved electric field uniformity, as well as composite solid electrolytes with supporting mesh or fiber systems providing solid electrolyte hardness and safety with supporting mesh or fiber toughness and long life required for thin solid electrolytes without fabrication pinholes or operationally created cracks.

Described are energy storage devices employing a gas storage structure, which can accommodate or store gas evolved from the energy storage device. The energy storage device comprises an electrochemical cell with electrodes comprising metal-containing compositions, like metal oxides, metal nitrides, or metal hydrides, and a solid state electrolyte.

A metal air battery apparatus includes: a metal air cell including a cathode layer including pores, an anode layer facing the cathode layer, and a solid electrolyte layer between the cathode layer and the anode layer; and a controller configured to control at least one of a charge rate or a discharge rate of the metal air cell based on a porosity of the cathode layer.

A metal air battery apparatus includes: a metal air cell including a cathode layer including pores, an anode layer facing the cathode layer, and a solid electrolyte layer between the cathode layer and the anode layer; and a controller configured to control at least one of a charge rate or a discharge rate of the metal air cell based on a porosity of the cathode layer.