The invention relates to heat engineering, power engineering and the field of electric heating of liquids, water for instance; it can be used in circulation water heating systems and hot water supply, and as a universal device for diverse electric heaters. An object of the invention are to enhance the ease of fabrication, fabricability, and operability for block electrodes and electrode heating boilers on the whole, to increase the reliability of device both in static and dynamic modes ones. The invention meets an object of extended performance capabilities, versatility and flexibility of the device, potential diversification and enhancement of adaptability in solving particular problems. Moreover, the invention allows improvement of convection in water heating boilers and reduction of uniformity of sludge and rust deposition on electrodes thus increasing the heater effective performance time. The invention object comprises an improvement of protection against breakdowns between the electrodes as well, phase current load imbalance reduction, electrode protection against non-uniform deformation during operation in dynamic conditions. It is also an object of the invention to extend i the range of constructional capacity control without design and dimensional changes. FIG. 2 provides a schematic of electrodes (1) arrangement on the basis (3) located on the inner case (2) side with electrodes (1) slightly deviating from the longitudinal symmetric axis of the case (2) and irregularly spaced on the basis, electrode longitudinal axes deviating from each other at small angles. (4)—outer electrode terminals (1).

The invention relates to heat engineering, power engineering and the field of electric heating of liquids, water for instance; it can be used in circulation water heating systems and hot water supply, and as a universal device for diverse electric heaters. An object of the invention are to enhance the ease of fabrication, fabricability, and operability for block electrodes and electrode heating boilers on the whole, to increase the reliability of device both in static and dynamic modes ones. The invention meets an object of extended performance capabilities, versatility and flexibility of the device, potential diversification and enhancement of adaptability in solving particular problems. Moreover, the invention allows improvement of convection in water heating boilers and reduction of uniformity of sludge and rust deposition on electrodes thus increasing the heater effective performance time. The invention object comprises an improvement of protection against breakdowns between the electrodes as well, phase current load imbalance reduction, electrode protection against non-uniform deformation during operation in dynamic conditions. It is also an object of the invention to extend i the range of constructional capacity control without design and dimensional changes. FIG. 2 provides a schematic of electrodes (1) arrangement on the basis (3) located on the inner case (2) side with electrodes (1) slightly deviating from the longitudinal symmetric axis of the case (2) and irregularly spaced on the basis, electrode longitudinal axes deviating from each other at small angles. (4)—outer electrode terminals (1).

A tunable boiling system includes a fluid having a solvent and an ionic surfactant in the solvent, a counter electrode disposed within the fluid, and a working electrode having a surface in contact with the fluid. The system is configured to apply a voltage between the surface and the counter electrode in order to affect bubble formation in the fluid at the surface. Methods of making and using the system are also provided.

The invention relates to an apparatus for fast and homogeneously heating a liquid product to a heating temperature by means of resistive heating, the apparatus comprising at least two vertically mounted, longitudinal, heating chambers that are arranged in series. The invention further relates to a process for fast and homogeneously heating a liquid product to a heating temperature by means of resistive heating in such apparatus comprising (a) continuously supplying the liquid product to the first heating chamber in series and flowing the liquid product continuously through the at least two heating chambers; (b) continuously generating an electrical current through the liquid product flowing through the heating chambers by continuously applying an electrical potential over each heating chamber, wherein the direction of the current is continuously alternated with a frequency of at least 500 Hz, to obtain heated liquid product; and (c) continuously discharging heated liquid product from the last heating chamber in series, wherein the liquid product has an electrical conductivity of at least 0.03 S/m.

The invention relates to an apparatus for fast and homogeneously heating a liquid product to a heating temperature by means of resistive heating, the apparatus comprising at least two vertically mounted, longitudinal, heating chambers that are arranged in series. The invention further relates to a process for fast and homogeneously heating a liquid product to a heating temperature by means of resistive heating in such apparatus comprising (a) continuously supplying the liquid product to the first heating chamber in series and flowing the liquid product continuously through the at least two heating chambers; (b) continuously generating an electrical current through the liquid product flowing through the heating chambers by continuously applying an electrical potential over each heating chamber, wherein the direction of the current is continuously alternated with a frequency of at least 500 Hz, to obtain heated liquid product; and (c) continuously discharging heated liquid product from the last heating chamber in series, wherein the liquid product has an electrical conductivity of at least 0.03 S/m.

A system may include a current source; a first metal or alloy component with a first major surface electrically coupled to the current source; a second metal or alloy component with a second major surface electrically coupled in series to the first component and the current source via an external electrical conductor, where the first and second major surfaces are positioned adjacent to each other to define a joint region; a metal or alloy powder disposed in at least a portion of the joint region; and a controller. The controller may be configured to cause the current source to output an alternating current that conducts through the first component and the second component to induce magnetic eddy currents, magnetic hysteresis, or both within at least a portion of the metal or alloy powder disposed in at least the first portion of the joint region.

A system may include a current source; a first metal or alloy component with a first major surface electrically coupled to the current source; a second metal or alloy component with a second major surface electrically coupled in series to the first component and the current source via an external electrical conductor, where the first and second major surfaces are positioned adjacent to each other to define a joint region; a metal or alloy powder disposed in at least a portion of the joint region; and a controller. The controller may be configured to cause the current source to output an alternating current that conducts through the first component and the second component to induce magnetic eddy currents, magnetic hysteresis, or both within at least a portion of the metal or alloy powder disposed in at least the first portion of the joint region.

A method for heating oil shale underground in situ. Shale oil and fuel gas can be obtained from an underground oil shale seam in situ, and the fuel gas can also be obtained from an underground coal seam in situ. Wells are drilled downwardly reaching an operation region of an underground oil shale ore bed. Electricity for partial discharge of the ore bed is conducted into electrodes, and a plasma channel is formed in the ore bed and subjected to breakdown by the electricity; after the resistance of each of two electrode regions is lowered, the two electrodes are used for conducting currents into the plasma channel in the oil shale ore bed; the oil shale ore bed is heated under the resistance heating function of the plasma channel; and released heat is used for realizing thermal cracking and gasification of fixed organic carbon in the oil shale ore bed.

A method for heating oil shale underground in situ. Shale oil and fuel gas can be obtained from an underground oil shale seam in situ, and the fuel gas can also be obtained from an underground coal seam in situ. Wells are drilled downwardly reaching an operation region of an underground oil shale ore bed. Electricity for partial discharge of the ore bed is conducted into electrodes, and a plasma channel is formed in the ore bed and subjected to breakdown by the electricity; after the resistance of each of two electrode regions is lowered, the two electrodes are used for conducting currents into the plasma channel in the oil shale ore bed; the oil shale ore bed is heated under the resistance heating function of the plasma channel; and released heat is used for realizing thermal cracking and gasification of fixed organic carbon in the oil shale ore bed.

An electrode for the ohmic heating of a particulate liquid flowing therethrough having an inlet and an outlet that are fluidly connected and are arranged in such a way that there is a change of direction of 60°-120° between the inlet and the outlet. A cell for the ohmic heating of a particulate liquid flowing therethrough may have two such electrodes and a dielectric tube that fluidly connects the two electrodes. An apparatus for the ohmic heating of a particulate liquid flowing therethrough may have six such cells that are fluidly connected in series and are electrically connected to a triphasic power supply, so that the increase of temperature of the liquid at any cell is substantially the same.