Presented herein is a voltaic cell containing light harvesting antennae or other biologically-based electron generating structures optionally in a microbial population, an electron siphon population having electron conductive properties with individual siphons configured to accept electrons from the light harvesting antennae and transport the electrons to a current collector, an optional light directing system (e.g., a mirror), and a regulator having sensing and regulatory feedback properties for the conversion of photobiochemical energy and biochemical energy to electricity. Also presented herein is a voltaic cell having electricity-generating abilities in the absence of light. Also presented herein is the use of the voltaic cell in a solar panel.

The present disclosure discloses metal oxide nanoparticle ink, a method of preparing the same, a metal oxide nanoparticle thin film manufactured using the same, and a photoelectric device using the same. The method of preparing metal oxide nanoparticle ink according to an embodiment of the present disclosure includes a step of, using a ligand solution including a metal oxide and an organic ligand, synthesizing a first nanoparticle that is a metal oxide nanoparticle surrounded with the organic ligand; a step of preparing a dispersion solution by dispersing the first nanoparticle in a solvent; a step of preparing a second nanoparticle by mixing the dispersion solution and a pH-adjusted alcohol solvent and then performing ultrasonication treatment to remove the organic ligand surrounding the first nanoparticle; and a step of preparing metal oxide nanoparticle ink by dispersing the second nanoparticle in a dispersion solvent.

A doped organic semiconductor is produced using the method of providing an organic semiconductor solution, contacting the organic semiconductor solution with CO.sub.2; and irradiating the organic semiconductor solution with ultraviolet light. A composition is described, the composition comprising an organic semiconductor; and a metal salt having the formula M.sup.+X.sup. wherein X.sup. is a monoanionic species; and wherein the ratio of M.sup.+ to X.sup. in the hole transport material is less than about 1.00. An additional composition is described, the composition comprising an organic semiconductor; a metal salt having the formula M.sup.+X.sup. wherein X.sup. is a monoanionic species; and a metal carbonate; wherein the total metal content of the composition is approximately equal to the X.sup. content of the composition.

The present disclosure may provide semiconductor perovskite layers and method of making thereof. In some cases, the perovskite layer may comprise a composition of MA.sub.n1FA.sub.n2Cs.sub.n3PbX.sub.3. MA may be methylammonium, FA may be formamidinium, n1, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and less than 1, and n1+n2+n3 may equal 1.

In various aspects, a device for reversibly modulating electromagnetic radiation may be provided. The device may include a base substrate. The device may include a patterned metal layer disposed over the base substrate. The patterned metal layer may include a plurality of electrodes separated by a gap and at least one additional metal pattern separated from the plurality of electrodes. The gap may define an active area through which radiation is passed. The device may include an organic layer disposed over at least the plurality of electrodes, and base substrate, and within the gap. The organic layer may include a conducting polymer. The device may include an ion gel disposed over the conducting polymer, the patterned metal layer, and the base substrate. The device may be configured to allow ions from the ion gel layer to transport into the conducting polymer.