The invention is drawn to novel nanostructures comprising hollow nanospheres and nanotubes for use as chemical sensors, conduits for fluids, and electronic conductors. The nanostructures can be used in microfluidic devices, for transporting fluids between devices and structures in analytical devices, for conducting electrical currents between devices and structure in analytical devices, and for conducting electrical currents between biological molecules and electronic devices, such as bio-microchips.

The present invention relates generally to molecular printing techniques for use in sensors, assays, and integrated optics and electronics. Specifically, the present invention relates to covalent patterning of graphene surfaces.

An optical biomodule for detecting a disease(s) in a biological fluid (containing a disease specific biomarker(s)) in a fluidic container(s) or on a substrate(s), utilizing an enhanced fluorescence emission (due to integration of three-dimensional (3-D) protruded structure(s)) upon chemical binding of a disease specific biomarker(s) with its corresponding specific disease specific biomarker binder(s) is disclosed. Furthermore, the invention includes spatial multiplexing and optical multiplexing of disease specific biomarker binders.

A process for ultrasensitive in vitro detection and/or quantification of a substance of interest in a sample is performed by detecting the luminescence emission by photoluminescent inorganic nanoparticles. The process includes (i) use of photoluminescent particles comprising a photoluminescent inorganic nanoparticle consisting of a crystalline matrix having at least 10.sup.3 rare-earth ions, and coupled to a targeting agent for the substance to be analyzed, under conditions conducive to their association with the sample substance to be analyzed; (ii) exciting the rare-earth ions of the particles by an illumination device having a power of at least 50 mW and an excitation intensity of at least 1 W/cm.sup.2; (iii) detecting the luminescence emission by the particles after single-photon absorption; and (iv) determining the presence and/or concentration of the substance by interpreting said luminescence measurement. This process can be used for in vitro diagnostic purposes and as an in vitro diagnostic kit.