Solid materials may be processed using shockwaves produced in a supersonic gaseous vortex. A high-velocity stream of gas may be introduced into a reactor. The reactor may have a chamber, a solid material inlet, a gas inlet, and an outlet. The high-velocity stream of gas may be introduced into the chamber of the reactor through the gas inlet. The high-velocity stream of gas may effectuate a supersonic gaseous vortex within the chamber. The reactor may be configured to facilitate chemical reactions and/or comminution of solid feed material using tensive forces of shockwaves created in the supersonic gaseous vortex within the chamber. Solid material may be fed into the chamber through the solid material inlet. The solid material may be processed within the chamber by nonabrasive mechanisms facilitated by the shockwaves within the chamber. The processed material that is communicated through the outlet of the reactor may be collected.

Described is a method for producing alkenyl halosilanes by reacting alkenyl halide selected from the group comprising vinyl halide, vinylidene halide, and allyl halide with halosilane selected from the group comprising monohalosilane, dihalosilane, and trihalosilane in the gas phase in a reactor comprising a reaction tube (1) that has an inlet (2) at one end and an outlet (3) at the other end, said reactor further comprising an annular-gap nozzle (4) that is mounted on the inlet (2), extends into the reaction tube (1), and has a central supply duct (5) for one reactant (7) and a supply duct (6), which surrounds the central supply duct (5), for the other reactant (8). In order to carry out said method, alkenyl halide is injected into the reaction tube (1) through the central supply duct (5), halosilane is injected thereinto through the surrounding supply duct (6), and both substances flow through the reaction tube (1) in the direction of the outlet (3). The described method allows alkenyl halosilanes to be produced at a high yield and with great selectivity. The amount of soot formed is significantly lower than in conventional reactors. The invention also relates to a reactor for carrying out gas-phase reactions, said reactor being characterized by at least the following elements: A) a reaction tube (1) that has B) an inlet (2) at one end, C) an outlet (3) at the other end, and D) an annular-gap nozzle (4) which includes a central supply duct (5) for one reactant (7) and a supply duct (6), which surrounds the central supply duct (5), for another reactant (8), said nozzle being mounted on the inlet (2) and extending into the reaction tube (1).

Described is a method for producing alkenyl halosilanes by reacting alkenyl halide selected from the group comprising vinyl halide, vinylidene halide, and allyl halide with halosilane selected from the group comprising monohalosilane, dihalosilane, and trihalosilane in the gas phase in a reactor comprising a reaction tube (1) that has an inlet (2) at one end and an outlet (3) at the other end, said reactor further comprising an annular-gap nozzle (4) that is mounted on the inlet (2), extends into the reaction tube (1), and has a central supply duct (5) for one reactant (7) and a supply duct (6), which surrounds the central supply duct (5), for the other reactant (8). In order to carry out said method, alkenyl halide is injected into the reaction tube (1) through the central supply duct (5), halosilane is injected thereinto through the surrounding supply duct (6), and both substances flow through the reaction tube (1) in the direction of the outlet (3). The described method allows alkenyl halosilanes to be produced at a high yield and with great selectivity. The amount of soot formed is significantly lower than in conventional reactors. The invention also relates to a reactor for carrying out gas-phase reactions, said reactor being characterized by at least the following elements: A) a reaction tube (1) that has B) an inlet (2) at one end, C) an outlet (3) at the other end, and D) an annular-gap nozzle (4) which includes a central supply duct (5) for one reactant (7) and a supply duct (6), which surrounds the central supply duct (5), for another reactant (8), said nozzle being mounted on the inlet (2) and extending into the reaction tube (1).

The present teachings provide apparatus and methods for mixing a reformable fuel and/or steam with an oxygen-containing gas and/or steam to provide a gaseous reforming reaction mixture suitable for reforming with a reformer and/or a fuel cell stack of a fuel cell unit and/or fuel cell system.

The present teachings provide apparatus and methods for mixing a reformable fuel and/or steam with an oxygen-containing gas and/or steam to provide a gaseous reforming reaction mixture suitable for reforming with a reformer and/or a fuel cell stack of a fuel cell unit and/or fuel cell system.

The invention provides a method for preparing graphene which method comprises the steps of: (a) forming a graphite/water mixture; and (b) introducing the graphite/water mixture into a cavitation reactor using at least two offset nozzles; a cavitation reactor for use in the method wherein the cavitation reactor has a cavitation chamber wherein the cavitation chamber has at least two offset inlet nozzles which are directed towards the centre of the cavitation chamber and at least one outlet; and graphene having a carbon content of at least about 98 wt %.

The invention provides a method for preparing graphene which method comprises the steps of: (a) forming a graphite/water mixture; and (b) introducing the graphite/water mixture into a cavitation reactor using at least two offset nozzles; a cavitation reactor for use in the method wherein the cavitation reactor has a cavitation chamber wherein the cavitation chamber has at least two offset inlet nozzles which are directed towards the centre of the cavitation chamber and at least one outlet; and graphene having a carbon content of at least about 98 wt %.

A method of oxidative pyrolysis involves heating hydrocarbon feedstock, heating a steam-oxygen mixture, combusting hydrocarbon feedstock in vapors of a steam-oxygen mixture in a special reactor, rapidly cooling the obtained products of incomplete combustion of chemical reactions in two steps, after which the cooled steam-gas mixture is directed to the fractionation unit. A hydrocarbons pyrolysis device has a steam-oxygen mixture and feedstock mixing chamber, a pyrolysis chamber and a coking reactor, a device for heating hydrocarbon feedstock, a device for heating steam-oxygen mixture coupled to a mixing chamber, a coking reactor having a device for supplying coolant to the pyrogas flow, a separation unit coupled to the coking reactor, a fractionation unit with an additional coolant supply device. Disposal of heavy oil residues by rapid coking with high economic efficiency and environmental safely while obtaining high-quality coke and producing aromatic compounds occurs without construction or additional installations.

A method of oxidative pyrolysis involves heating hydrocarbon feedstock, heating a steam-oxygen mixture, combusting hydrocarbon feedstock in vapors of a steam-oxygen mixture in a special reactor, rapidly cooling the obtained products of incomplete combustion of chemical reactions in two steps, after which the cooled steam-gas mixture is directed to the fractionation unit. A hydrocarbons pyrolysis device has a steam-oxygen mixture and feedstock mixing chamber, a pyrolysis chamber and a coking reactor, a device for heating hydrocarbon feedstock, a device for heating steam-oxygen mixture coupled to a mixing chamber, a coking reactor having a device for supplying coolant to the pyrogas flow, a separation unit coupled to the coking reactor, a fractionation unit with an additional coolant supply device. Disposal of heavy oil residues by rapid coking with high economic efficiency and environmental safely while obtaining high-quality coke and producing aromatic compounds occurs without construction or additional installations.

Provided herein are systems for carbonation curing and CO.sub.2 mineralization of concrete composites and methods of manufacturing a carbonated concrete composite. A method of manufacturing a carbonated concrete composites includes contacting concrete with CO.sub.2-containing gas streams in the carbonation reactor having a gas stream inlet and an outlet to provide optimal gas flow distribution and gas velocity. The concrete precursor includes a binder, one or more aggregates, and water. A gas stream is received at the carbonation reactor. The gas stream includes carbon dioxide. The concrete precursor is maintained at a suitable temperature in the carbonation reactor to thereby react the concrete precursor with the gas stream to produce carbonate minerals in the carbonated concrete composite.