Disclosed herein are various layered, carbon-containing materials for use in reducing carbon dioxide. In certain embodiments, the materials comprise single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs).

The present invention relates to a method and an apparatus of preparing a reduction product of carbon dioxide by electrochemically reducing carbon dioxide. The present invention can prepare, in an energy-efficient manner, a reduction product of high-concentration carbon dioxide with high Faraday efficiency as in a liquid reduction reaction by producing the reduction product of carbon dioxide by supplying water or an electrolytic solution to an anode region; supplying humidified carbon dioxide gas having a second temperature higher than a first temperature to a cathode region within an electrochemical cell having the first temperature so as to supply the carbon dioxide gas which has been humidified to be in a condition where the relative humidity is greater than 100%, while applying a voltage between the anode region and the cathode region so as to generate hydrogen ions (H.sup.+) in the anode region; and transporting the hydrogen ions to the cathode region through the electrolyte membrane, thereby electrochemically reducing the carbon dioxide gas.

Various embodiments may include an electrolyzer for electrochemical utilization of carbon dioxide comprising: electrolysis cell defining an anode space and a cathode space; an anode in the anode space; a cathode in the cathode space; a first cation-permeable membrane disposed between the anode space and the cathode space; and a second anion-selective membrane disposed between the first cation-permeable membrane and the cathode. The anode directly adjoins the first cation-permeable membrane. The second anion-selective membrane directly adjoins the first cation-permeable membrane and the second anion-selective membrane directly adjoins the cathode.

A combination of an electrochemical device for delivering reducing equivalents to a cell, and engineered metabolic pathways within the cell capable of utilizing the electrochemically provided reducing equivalents is disclosed. Such a combination allows the production of commodity chemicals by fermentation to proceed with increased carbon efficiency.

An electrochlorination system comprising an electrochemical cell including a housing having an inlet, an outlet, and an anode-cathode pair disposed within the housing, a source of a chloride-containing aqueous solution having an outlet fluidly connectable to the inlet of the electrochemical cell, and a source of an oxidizing agent fluidly connectable to the source of chloride-containing aqueous solution upstream of the electrochemical cell.

Various embodiments may include an electrolyzer for electrochemical utilization of carbon dioxide comprising: an electrolysis cell defining an anode space and a cathode space; an anode; a cathode; a first cation-permeable membrane disposed between the anode space and the cathode space; and a layer comprising an anion-selective polymer disposed between the first membrane and the cathode. The anode directly adjoins the first cation-permeable membrane and the layer covers at least part of the cathode but not all of the cathode.

A memory structure formed above a semiconductor substrate includes two or more modules each formed on top of each other separated by a layer of global interconnect conductors. Each memory module may include a 3-dimensional array of memory transistors organized as NOR array strings. Each 3-dimensional array of memory transistors is provided vertical local word lines as gate electrodes to the memory transistors. These vertical local word lines are connected by the layers of global interconnect conductors below and above the 3-dimensional array of memory transistors to circuitry formed in the semiconductor substrate.

A membrane electrode assembly for an electrochemical cell, in particular a co-electrolysis cell for CO.sub.2 reduction reaction, can overcome the problem of parasitic CO.sub.2 pumping from cathode to anode side and, at the same time, maintain good Faradaic efficiency towards CO.sub.2 reduction reaction in a co-electrolysis system where pure or diluted gaseous CO.sub.2 is used. The assembly includes an MEA, having an anode, a cathode, a polymer ion exchange membrane between cathode and anode, an additional ion exchange polymer film between the cathode and the polymer ion exchange membrane and a discontinuous interface formed between the additional polymer film located at the cathode side and the ion exchange membrane.

A method reducing carbon dioxide to one or more organic products may include steps (A) to (E). Step (A) may introduce an anolyte to a first compartment of an electrochemical cell. The first compartment may include an anode. Step (B) may introduce a catholyte and carbon dioxide to a second compartment of the electrochemical cell. Step (C) may oxidize an indium cathode to produce an oxidized indium cathode. Step (D) may introduce the oxidized indium cathode to the second compartment. Step (E) may apply an electrical potential between the anode and the oxidized indium cathode sufficient for the oxidized indium cathode to reduce the carbon dioxide to a reduced product.

A solar fuels generator includes an anolyte and a catholyte in contact with a separator. The separator is configured such that the pH of the anolyte and the pH of the catholyte are each held at a steady state pH level during operation of the solar fuels generator. The steady state pH level of the anolyte is different from the steady state pH level of the catholyte.