Protection of space solar cells in an arrangement in the form of a string extending in an X direction, and two directly adjacent space solar cells in the X direction in each case are electrically connected to each other in series with the aid of a metallic connector. The string has a first end and a second end opposite the first end, and a protection arrangement formed along a Y direction is formed on one of the two ends. The protection arrangement has a first string protection diode formed in the Y direction and a metal strip and a second string protection diode. The protection arrangement is electrically connected to one of the two ends of the string and each string protection diode is uncased and has exactly one metal contact on the upper side and exactly one metal contact on the underside.

Protection of space solar cells in an arrangement in the form of a string extending in an X direction, and two directly adjacent space solar cells in the X direction in each case are electrically connected to each other in series with the aid of a metallic connector. The string has a first end and a second end opposite the first end, and a protection arrangement formed along a Y direction is formed on one of the two ends. The protection arrangement has a first string protection diode formed in the Y direction and a metal strip and a second string protection diode. The protection arrangement is electrically connected to one of the two ends of the string and each string protection diode is uncased and has exactly one metal contact on the upper side and exactly one metal contact on the underside.

An electrical connection is formed between first and second conductive elements, by inserting a nano-metal material between the first and second conductive elements; and heating the nano-metal material to a melting temperature to form the electrical connection between the first and second conductive elements. The nano-metal material may comprise a nano-metal paste or ink comprised of one or more of Gold (Au), Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and/or Aluminum (Al) nano-particles that melt or fuse into a solid to form the electrical connection, at a melting temperature of about 150-250 degrees C., and more preferably, about 175-225 degrees C. The electrical connection may be formed between a solar cell and a substrate by creating a via in the solar cell between a front and back side of the solar cell, wherein the via is connected to a contact on the front side of the solar cell and a trace on the substrate.

An antenna array has a plurality of square or rectangular antenna assemblies. Each assembly includes a first antenna assembly surface with a solar cell and a second antenna assembly with one or more antenna elements. The antenna assemblies are interconnected without gaps therebetween to form a first contiguous array surface comprised of the first antenna assembly surfaces and a second contiguous array surface comprised of the second antenna assembly surfaces. The antenna assemblies are connected together by mechanically stored-energy connectors, such as spring tape, that self-deploy the array in space without the use of electric energy.

Protection of space solar cells in an arrangement in the form of a string extending in an X direction, and two directly adjacent space solar cells in the X direction in each case are electrically connected to each other in series with the aid of a metallic connector. The string has a first end and a second end opposite the first end, and a protection arrangement formed along a Y direction is formed on one of the two ends. The protection arrangement has a first string protection diode formed in the Y direction and a metal strip and a second string protection diode. The protection arrangement is electrically connected to one of the two ends of the string and each string protection diode is uncased and has exactly one metal contact on the upper side and exactly one metal contact on the underside.

Protection of space solar cells in an arrangement in the form of a string extending in an X direction, and two directly adjacent space solar cells in the X direction in each case are electrically connected to each other in series with the aid of a metallic connector. The string has a first end and a second end opposite the first end, and a protection arrangement formed along a Y direction is formed on one of the two ends. The protection arrangement has a first string protection diode formed in the Y direction and a metal strip and a second string protection diode. The protection arrangement is electrically connected to one of the two ends of the string and each string protection diode is uncased and has exactly one metal contact on the upper side and exactly one metal contact on the underside.

The present disclosure relates to a solar cell that includes a first layer that includes a semiconductor and a second layer that includes at least one of an oxide, a carbide, a nitride, a fluoride, and/or a sulfide, where the second layer covers a surface of the first layer, the second layer has a thickness between about 400 nm and about 10 m, and the solar cell retains at least 95% of a starting power-conversion-efficiency (PCE) after exposure to a proton fluence of about 1E15 cm.sup.2 for protons having an energy between greater than zero KeV per proton and less than or equal to 0.05 KeV per proton.

The present disclosure relates to a solar cell that includes a first layer that includes a semiconductor and a second layer that includes at least one of an oxide, a carbide, a nitride, a fluoride, and/or a sulfide, where the second layer covers a surface of the first layer, the second layer has a thickness between about 400 nm and about 10 m, and the solar cell retains at least 95% of a starting power-conversion-efficiency (PCE) after exposure to a proton fluence of about 1E15 cm.sup.2 for protons having an energy between greater than zero KeV per proton and less than or equal to 0.05 KeV per proton.

A photovoltaic device includes a plurality of photovoltaic cells coupled in series, the photovoltaic cells including a first contact layer disposed over a first substrate, a first charge transport layer (CTL) disposed over the first contact layer, an absorber layer disposed over the first CTL, a second CTL disposed over the absorber layer, and an ultraviolet (UV) blocking layer comprising a first layer formed on a first side of the first substrate and a second layer formed over the first layer, wherein a refractive index (RI) between the first layer and the first substrate is less than or equal to 1.3, and an RI between the second layer and the first layer is from about 0.75 and about 1.5