Electrochemical reduction of an exemplary ATRP catalyst, C.sup.IIBr.sub.2/Me.sub.6TREN, is shown to be an efficient process to mediate and execute an ATRP. The onset of polymerization occurs only through passage of a cathodic current achieved under a reductive potential to form Cu.sup.IBr.sub.2/Me.sub.6TREN, within the reaction medium. Unprecedented control over the polymerization kinetics can be attained through electrochemical methods by modulating the magnitude of the applied potential allowing polymerization rate enhancement or retardation. Additional polymerization control is gained through electrochemical dials allowing polymerization rate enhancements achieved by larger applied potentials and the ability to successfully switch a polymerization on and off between dormant and active states by application of multistep intermittent potentials.

Electrochemical reduction of an exemplary ATRP catalyst, C.sup.IIBr.sub.2/Me.sub.6TREN, is shown to be an efficient process to mediate and execute an ATRP. The onset of polymerization occurs only through passage of a cathodic current achieved under a reductive potential to form Cu.sup.IBr.sub.2/Me.sub.6TREN, within the reaction medium. Unprecedented control over the polymerization kinetics can be attained through electrochemical methods by modulating the magnitude of the applied potential allowing polymerization rate enhancement or retardation. Additional polymerization control is gained through electrochemical dials allowing polymerization rate enhancements achieved by larger applied potentials and the ability to successfully switch a polymerization on and off between dormant and active states by application of multistep intermittent potentials.

Electropolymerizable compositions are disclosed. Certain electropolymerizable compositions include one or more 1,1-disubstituted alkene compounds and one or more conductive synergists. Other certain electropolymerizable compositions include one or more 1,1-disubstituted alkene compounds and one or more acid stabilizers and one or more free radical stabilizers.

Electropolymerizable compositions are disclosed. Certain electropolymerizable compositions include one or more 1,1-disubstituted alkene compounds and one or more conductive synergists. Other certain electropolymerizable compositions include one or more 1,1-disubstituted alkene compounds and one or more acid stabilizers and one or more free radical stabilizers.

Techniques for forming a nanopore in a lipid bilayer are described herein. In one example, an agitation stimulus level such as an electrical agitation stimulus is applied to a lipid bilayer wherein the agitation stimulus level tends to facilitate the formation of nanopores in the lipid bilayer. In some embodiments, a change in an electrical property of the lipid bilayer resulting from the formation of the nanopore in the lipid bilayer is detected, and a nanopore has formed in the lipid bilayer is determined based on the detected change in the lipid bilayer electrical property.

This application relates to nanoparticles, including nanoparticles derived from a plasma, and their use in the formation of conjugates. The nanoparticles can be stably conjugated to a wide variety of second species, forming conjugates which can be used, for example, in therapeutic, diagnostic and experimental methods.