A composition is provided that includes: a carbonized carbon having an iodine number of at least 60 mg/g and a domain size of between 1.0 and 2.3 nm. An article or fuel is provided that includes the composition in a polymer forming a matrix or water suspension, respectively. A composition of so provided and derived from wood has been assigned a new CAS number (CAS No. 1362167-53-0).

Disclosed herein is a composition having a plurality of particles of a filler material and crosslinking units having the formula —(SiR—CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2)—. The silicon atom in the crosslinking unit is directly or indirectly bound to the filler material. Each R is alkyl, alkenyl, phenyl, methyl, ethyl, allyl, halogen, chloro, or bromo. Also disclosed herein is a filler material having the silicon atom of a silacyclobutane group is directly or indirectly bound thereto. Also disclosed herein is a method of crosslinking silacyclobutane groups bound to a plurality of particles of a filler material. The silicon atom of the silacyclobutane group is directly or indirectly bound to the filler material. Also disclosed herein is a composition including a plurality of fibers of a polymer having reactive oxygen atoms and siloxane groups. Coordination bonds are formed between the oxygen atoms and the silicon atoms of the siloxane groups of separate fibers.

Disclosed herein is a composition having a plurality of particles of a filler material and crosslinking units having the formula —(SiR—CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2)—. The silicon atom in the crosslinking unit is directly or indirectly bound to the filler material. Each R is alkyl, alkenyl, phenyl, methyl, ethyl, allyl, halogen, chloro, or bromo. Also disclosed herein is a filler material having the silicon atom of a silacyclobutane group is directly or indirectly bound thereto. Also disclosed herein is a method of crosslinking silacyclobutane groups bound to a plurality of particles of a filler material. The silicon atom of the silacyclobutane group is directly or indirectly bound to the filler material. Also disclosed herein is a composition including a plurality of fibers of a polymer having reactive oxygen atoms and siloxane groups. Coordination bonds are formed between the oxygen atoms and the silicon atoms of the siloxane groups of separate fibers.

Methods of processing particulate carbon material, such as graphic particles or agglomerates of carbon nanoparticles such as CNTs are provided. The starting material is agitated in a treatment vessel in the presence of low-pressure (glow) plasma generated between electrodes. The material is agitated in the presence of conductive contact bodies such as metal balls, on the surface of which plasma glow is present and amongst which the material to be treated moves. The methods effectively deagglomerate nanoparticles, and exfoliate graphitic material to produce very thin graphitic sheets showing graphene-type characteristics. The resulting nanomaterials used by dispersal in composite materials, e.g. conductive polymeric composites for electric or electronic articles and devices. The particle surfaces can be functionalized by choosing appropriate gas in which to form the plasma.

Methods of processing particulate carbon material, such as graphic particles or agglomerates of carbon nanoparticles such as CNTs are provided. The starting material is agitated in a treatment vessel in the presence of low-pressure (glow) plasma generated between electrodes. The material is agitated in the presence of conductive contact bodies such as metal balls, on the surface of which plasma glow is present and amongst which the material to be treated moves. The methods effectively deagglomerate nanoparticles, and exfoliate graphitic material to produce very thin graphitic sheets showing graphene-type characteristics. The resulting nanomaterials used by dispersal in composite materials, e.g. conductive polymeric composites for electric or electronic articles and devices. The particle surfaces can be functionalized by choosing appropriate gas in which to form the plasma.

Hybrid particles having improved electrical conductivity and thermal and chemical stabilities are disclosed. The hybrid particles are for use in conductive pastes. The hybrid particles include a nanoparticle selected from a graphene-containing material, a dichalcogenide material, a conducting polymer, or a combination thereof encapsulated in a conducting metal. The hybrid particles include a nanoparticle selected from a graphene-containing material, a dichalcogenide material, or a combination thereof encapsulated in a conducting polymer, and optionally further in a conducting metal. Suitable conducting metals include nickel or silver. Suitable conducting polymers include polyaniline, polypyrrole, or polythiophene. Suitable dichalcogenide materials include MoS.sub.2 or MoSe.sub.2. The hybrid particles can further include a conducting polymer layer on an outer surface of the conducting metal. Methods of making the hybrid particles are also disclosed.

Hybrid particles having improved electrical conductivity and thermal and chemical stabilities are disclosed. The hybrid particles are for use in conductive pastes. The hybrid particles include a nanoparticle selected from a graphene-containing material, a dichalcogenide material, a conducting polymer, or a combination thereof encapsulated in a conducting metal. The hybrid particles include a nanoparticle selected from a graphene-containing material, a dichalcogenide material, or a combination thereof encapsulated in a conducting polymer, and optionally further in a conducting metal. Suitable conducting metals include nickel or silver. Suitable conducting polymers include polyaniline, polypyrrole, or polythiophene. Suitable dichalcogenide materials include MoS.sub.2 or MoSe.sub.2. The hybrid particles can further include a conducting polymer layer on an outer surface of the conducting metal. Methods of making the hybrid particles are also disclosed.

There is provided a pH responsive optical nanoprobe comprising metallic SWCNTs or graphene coated with a transition metal M. The coated metallic SWCNTs or graphene have an absorption spectrum comprising an optical resonance, and have a Raman scattering spectrum responsive to optical excitation at said optical resonance comprising at least one pH-dependent peak having at least one of a Raman shift value and an intensity that is function of a solution pH, when the nanoprobe is in contact with a solution at said solution pH. There is also provided a method to measure the pH of a solution, by contacting the solution with the nanoprobe; illuminating the nanoprobe with an excitation light beam having a wavelength at said optical resonance, thereby generating a Raman signal from the nanoprobe according to said Raman scattering spectrum; measuring a spectral distribution of the Raman signal; and determining the pH of the solution from the spectral distribution.

The product of and a process for forming a metal composite comprising particles of a carbon allotrope dispersed in a metal or a mixture of metals. In one embodiment, the process includes the steps of: (a) contacting particles of a carbon allotrope with surfactant having an organic portion and an anionic portion wherein the anionic portion is bonded to the organic portion and wherein the anionic portion is ionically associated with a cation so that the organic portion of the surfactant is adsorbed onto the surface of the particles of the carbon allotrope to produce surfactant modified particles; (b) contacting the surfactant modified particles with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures thereof to replace some or all of the cations of the surfactant modified particles with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures thereof to produce metal ion modified particles; (c) mixing the metal ion modified particles with a metal or a mixture of metals to form a mixture thereof; and (d) processing the mixture to form a metal composite comprising particles of the carbon allotrope dispersed in the metal or mixture of metal. In another embodiment the process includes the steps of: (a) contacting particles of a carbon allotrope with a surfactant having an organic portion and an anionic portion wherein the anionic portion is bonded to the organic portion and wherein the anionic portion is ionically associated with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures to produce metal ion modified particles; (b) mixing the metal ion modified particles with a metal or a mixture of metals to form a mixture thereof; and (c) processing the mixture to form a metal composite comprising particles of the carbon allotrope dispersed in the metal or mixture of metals.

The product of and a process for forming a metal composite comprising particles of a carbon allotrope dispersed in a metal or a mixture of metals. In one embodiment, the process includes the steps of: (a) contacting particles of a carbon allotrope with surfactant having an organic portion and an anionic portion wherein the anionic portion is bonded to the organic portion and wherein the anionic portion is ionically associated with a cation so that the organic portion of the surfactant is adsorbed onto the surface of the particles of the carbon allotrope to produce surfactant modified particles; (b) contacting the surfactant modified particles with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures thereof to replace some or all of the cations of the surfactant modified particles with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures thereof to produce metal ion modified particles; (c) mixing the metal ion modified particles with a metal or a mixture of metals to form a mixture thereof; and (d) processing the mixture to form a metal composite comprising particles of the carbon allotrope dispersed in the metal or mixture of metal. In another embodiment the process includes the steps of: (a) contacting particles of a carbon allotrope with a surfactant having an organic portion and an anionic portion wherein the anionic portion is bonded to the organic portion and wherein the anionic portion is ionically associated with a transition metal cation and/or a post-transition metal cation and/or mixtures to produce metal ion modified particles; (b) mixing the metal ion modified particles with a metal or a mixture of metals to form a mixture thereof; and (c) processing the mixture to form a metal composite comprising particles of the carbon allotrope dispersed in the metal or mixture of metals.