Biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal waste biomass) or other materials are processed to produce useful intermediates and products, such as energy, fuels, foods or materials. For example, systems and methods are described that can be used to treat feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materials, in a vault in which the walls and optionally the ceiling include discrete units. Such vaults are re-configurable.

Biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal waste biomass) is processed to produce useful products, such as fuels. For example, systems are described that can use feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materials, to produce ethanol and/or butanol, e.g., by fermentation.

Embodiments of a system for on-site conversion of carbon dioxide from vehicle exhaust to liquid fuels and fuel additives comprise a carbon dioxide collection system, an external power source, an electrolyzer, and a carbon dioxide conversion system. The carbon dioxide collection system interfaces with a mobile carbon dioxide capture system onboard a vehicle to transfer CO.sub.2 captured from vehicle exhaust to a vessel in the carbon dioxide collection system. The external power source provides the energy required for operation of the carbon dioxide conversion system and the electrolyzer. The electrolyzer separates a water feed into hydrogen and oxygen to generate a hydrogen feed and an oxygen feed. The carbon dioxide conversion system converts the CO.sub.2 collected from the exhaust of the vehicles and delivered to the carbon dioxide collection system and the hydrogen feed from the electrolyzer into useful liquid fuels and fuel additives through electrochemical reduction.

The present invention provides a method of incorporating a gaseous hydrocarbon into a liquid hydrocarbon. The method comprises steps of exposing a gaseous hydrocarbon to non-thermal plasma generated using a reduced electric field with an E/N ratio in a range of from about 10 to about 30 Td to activate the gaseous hydrocarbon, and contacting the activated gaseous hydrocarbon with the liquid hydrocarbon to incorporate the gaseous hydrocarbon into the liquid hydrocarbon. The method provides the advantages of low energy consumption and relatively low capital expenditure.

A method of producing a hydrocarbon fuel from a soapstock includes supplying a pyrolysis reactor that includes a microwave absorbent bed susceptible to microwave irradiation, applying microwave energy to the pyrolysis reactor, wherein the microwave absorbent bed converts the microwave energy to thermal energy, supplying the soapstock to the microwave absorbent bed, and condensing a vapor generated by pyrolysis of the soapstock sufficient to collect the hydrocarbon fuel.

The present invention discloses a method of producing a fuel additive comprising the following steps: mixing alcohol in water; homogenize the mixture under the influence of mechanical waves, preferably ultrasound and specific pressure; adding an oxidizing solution to the mixture; exposing the mixture to electromagnetic radiation, preferably UV; perform electrolysis with molecular sieve with specific porosity; exposing the mixture from the previous step to radiation in the microwave spectrum; and atomize the mixture in the medium of specific alcohols. The present invention aims to provide an additive with the ability to increase the amount of oxygen in the combustion reaction inside a combustion chamber. Another objective of the present invention is to provide a fuel additive capable of generating, after the combustion reaction, nitrous compounds for lubricating the metallic surfaces of the engine.

A method of synthesis of energetic particles, and associated systems, the method including providing a metal powder, dispersing the metal powder in a first fluid to form a first suspension, contacting the first suspension with an oxide precursor, aqueous ammonium hydroxide and a second fluid, to produce a first product, collecting product solids and inductively heating product solids to produce energetic core-shell particles.

Biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal waste biomass) is processed to produce useful intermediates and products, such as energy, fuels, foods or materials. For example, systems and methods are described that can be used to treat feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materials, in a vault in which the equipment is protected from radiation and hazardous gases by equipment enclosures. The equipment enclosures may be purged with gas.

A process for converting light alkanes from a natural gas production stream to higher molecular weight hydrocarbons is provided. The method includes transporting the natural gas stream to an electron beam reactor, such as a steel flow-type radiation reactor connected hermetically to an accelerator beam window. The gas stream is exposed to electron beam radiation to generate an upgraded and substantially liquefied hydrocarbon stream. The method then includes transporting the substantially liquefied hydrocarbon stream into a scrubber to remove non-condensed gases. The remaining liquid hydrocarbon stream is then transported as condensate to a distillation tower, where high octane products are separated through fractionation.

Biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal waste biomass) is processed to produce useful intermediates and products, such as energy, fuels, foods or materials. For example, equipment, systems and methods are described that can be used to treat feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materials, in a vault in which hazardous gases are removed, destroyed and/or converted. The treatments are efficient and can reduce the recalcitrance of the lignocellulosic material so that it is easier to produce an intermediate or product, e.g., sugars, alcohols, sugar alcohols and energy, from the lignocellulosic material.