A pull rod for use in producing a single crystal from a molten alloy is provided that includes an elongated rod having a first end and a second end, a first cavity defined at the first end and a second cavity defined at the first end and in communication with the first cavity. The first cavity receives the molten alloy and the second cavity vents a gas from the molten alloy to thereby template a single crystal when the pull rod is dipped into and extracted from the molten alloy.

Provided is a method that allows growing a single crystal of silicon carbide on an off-substrate of silicon carbide while suppressing surface roughening. The method for producing a crystal of silicon carbide includes rotating a seed crystal of silicon carbide while bringing the seed crystal into contact with a starting material solution containing silicon and carbon. A crystal growth surface of the seed crystal has an off-angle, and the position of a rotation center of the seed crystal lies downstream of the central position of the seed crystal in a step flow direction that is a formation direction of the off-angle.

A bismuth and magnesium co-doped lithium niobate crystal includes Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Nb.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2O.sub.3 and MgO, wherein the molar ratio of [Li] and [Nb] is 0.90-1.00, the molar percentage of Bi.sub.2O.sub.3 in the mixture is 0.25-0.80%, and the molar percentage of MgO in the mixture is 3.0-7.0%. The bismuth and magnesium co-doped lithium niobate crystal has enhanced photorefraction, improved photorefractive sensitivity, shortened holographic grating saturation writing time, and the photorefractive diffraction efficiency can reach up to 17%. The response time is only 170 ms, when the holographic storage experiment is carried out using 488 nm continuous laser. Therefore, this crystal can be used in the field of holographic imaging.

A bismuth and magnesium co-doped lithium niobate crystal includes Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Nb.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2O.sub.3 and MgO, wherein the molar ratio of [Li] and [Nb] is 0.90-1.00, the molar percentage of Bi.sub.2O.sub.3 in the mixture is 0.25-0.80%, and the molar percentage of MgO in the mixture is 3.0-7.0%. The bismuth and magnesium co-doped lithium niobate crystal has enhanced photorefraction, improved photorefractive sensitivity, shortened holographic grating saturation writing time, and the photorefractive diffraction efficiency can reach up to 17%. The response time is only 170 ms, when the holographic storage experiment is carried out using 488 nm continuous laser. Therefore, this crystal can be used in the field of holographic imaging.

A method for preparing a single crystal silicon ingot and a wafer sliced therefrom are provided. The ingots and wafers comprise nitrogen at a concentration of at least about 1×10.sup.14 atoms/cm.sup.3 and/or germanium at a concentration of at least about 1×10.sup.19 atoms/cm.sup.3, interstitial oxygen at a concentration of less than about 6 ppma, and a resistivity of at least about 1000 ohm cm.

A method for producing a silicon ingot by the horizontal magnetic field Czochralski method includes rotating a crucible containing a silicon melt, applying a horizontal magnetic field to the crucible, contacting the silicon melt with a seed crystal, and withdrawing the seed crystal from the silicon melt while rotating the crucible to form a silicon ingot. The crucible has a wettable surface with a cristobalite layer formed thereon.

A method for producing a silicon ingot by the horizontal magnetic field Czochralski method includes rotating a crucible containing a silicon melt, applying a horizontal magnetic field to the crucible, contacting the silicon melt with a seed crystal, and withdrawing the seed crystal from the silicon melt while rotating the crucible to form a silicon ingot. The crucible has a wettable surface with a cristobalite layer formed thereon.

A semiconductor wafer including a single crystal doped with a dopant, wherein a resistivity of the wafer is 0.7 mΩ-cm or less, and wherein a striation height of the wafer is 6 mm or more. The resistivity of the wafer may be 0.8 mΩ-cm or less, and the striation height may be 13 mm or more. The resistivity of the wafer may be 0.7 mΩ-cm or less, and the striation may be 22 mm or more. Example features relate to a method of making a semiconductor wafer that includes adding a dopant to a silicon melt, rotationally pulling a crystal from the silicon melt, and applying a magnetic field of 3000 G or more such that the semiconductor wafer has a resistivity that is equal to or less than 0.8 mΩ-cm and a striation height that is equal to or more than 13 mm.

A semiconductor wafer including a single crystal doped with a dopant, wherein a resistivity of the wafer is 0.7 mΩ-cm or less, and wherein a striation height of the wafer is 6 mm or more. The resistivity of the wafer may be 0.8 mΩ-cm or less, and the striation height may be 13 mm or more. The resistivity of the wafer may be 0.7 mΩ-cm or less, and the striation may be 22 mm or more. Example features relate to a method of making a semiconductor wafer that includes adding a dopant to a silicon melt, rotationally pulling a crystal from the silicon melt, and applying a magnetic field of 3000 G or more such that the semiconductor wafer has a resistivity that is equal to or less than 0.8 mΩ-cm and a striation height that is equal to or more than 13 mm.

In this photoelectric conversion element wherein group III-IV compound semiconductor single crystals containing zinc as an impurity are used as a substrate, the substrate is increased in size without lowering conversion efficiency. A heat-resistant crucible is filled with raw material and a sealant, and the raw material and sealant are heated, thereby melting the raw material into a melt, softening the encapsulant, and covering the melt from the top with the encapsulant. The temperature inside the crucible is controlled such that the temperature of the top of the encapsulant relative to the bottom of the encapsulant becomes higher in a range that not equal or exceed the temperature of bottom of the encapsulant, and seed crystal is dipped in the melt and pulled upward with respect to the melt, thereby growing single crystals from the seed crystal. Thus, a large compound semiconductor wafer that is at least two inches in diameter and has a low dislocation density of 5,000 cm.sup.−2 can be obtained, despite having a low average zinc concentration of 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 to 3×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, at which a crystal hardening effect does not manifest.