Embodiments described herein relate generally to the large scale production of functionalized graphene. In some embodiments, a method for producing functionalized graphene includes combining a crystalline graphite with a first electrolyte solution that includes at least one of a metal hydroxide salt, an oxidizer, and a surfactant. The crystalline graphite is then milled in the presence of the first electrolyte solution for a first time period to produce a thinned intermediate material. The thinned intermediate material is combined with a second electrolyte solution that includes a strong oxidizer and at least one of a metal hydroxide salt, a weak oxidizer, and a surfactant. The thinned intermediate material is then milled in the presence of the second electrolyte solution for a second time period to produce functionalized graphene.

A method of creating thin wafers of single crystal silicon, sapphire and similar materials, wherein an ingot of single crystalline material, or a ribbon of single crystalline material is cleaved, in a plane parallel to a surface, with laser light focused to a line in the desired plane of cleavage, near the growing cleavage furrow. The light is of a wavelength that the material is transparent to, but for which the material has strong two- or three-photon absorption. Consequently the light is not appreciably absorbed until it reached the desired focal line. The light is presented in an extremely short pulse, which heats and expands the material at the line focus, before the heat can be dissipated. This expansion creates tangential stresses around the focal line. These stresses are designed to be precisely normal to the growing cleavage furrow. Therefore the stresses are able to induce cleavage in the desired plane, without inducing cleavage in other possible cleavage planes that may happen to intersect with the growing cleavage edge. In this way, extremely thin wafers and ribbon shaped wafers can be produced, with extremely high quality cleaved faces. Methods of initiating the cleavage furrow and separating the cleaved wafer from the rest of the crystal are also discussed.

A method of creating thin wafers of single crystal silicon, sapphire and similar materials, wherein an ingot of single crystalline material, or a ribbon of single crystalline material is cleaved, in a plane parallel to a surface, with laser light focused to a line in the desired plane of cleavage, near the growing cleavage furrow. The light is of a wavelength that the material is transparent to, but for which the material has strong two- or three-photon absorption. Consequently the light is not appreciably absorbed until it reached the desired focal line. The light is presented in an extremely short pulse, which heats and expands the material at the line focus, before the heat can be dissipated. This expansion creates tangential stresses around the focal line. These stresses are designed to be precisely normal to the growing cleavage furrow. Therefore the stresses are able to induce cleavage in the desired plane, without inducing cleavage in other possible cleavage planes that may happen to intersect with the growing cleavage edge. In this way, extremely thin wafers and ribbon shaped wafers can be produced, with extremely high quality cleaved faces. Methods of initiating the cleavage furrow and separating the cleaved wafer from the rest of the crystal are also discussed.

A method of producing periodic polarization inversion structures requires the provision of first electrode piece part-arrays, each having electrode piece parts on a first main face of a ferroelectric crystal substrate. A voltage is applied on the first electrode piece part-arrays to form first periodic polarization inversion structures. Second electrode piece part-arrays are provided, each having electrode piece parts between the adjacent plural first periodic polarization inversion structures. A voltage is applied on the second electrode piece part-arrays to form second polarization inversion structures.

A method of producing periodic polarization inversion structures requires the provision of first electrode piece part-arrays, each having electrode piece parts on a first main face of a ferroelectric crystal substrate. A voltage is applied on the first electrode piece part-arrays to form first periodic polarization inversion structures. Second electrode piece part-arrays are provided, each having electrode piece parts between the adjacent plural first periodic polarization inversion structures. A voltage is applied on the second electrode piece part-arrays to form second polarization inversion structures.

A single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 MSM detector and a preparation method thereof, comprising: machining grooves on a single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate using a laser-assisted waterjet machining technique to form a 3D shape; wet etching the machined single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate using an HF solution to remove machining damage; performing Au evaporation on a surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate after processing, coating an Au thin film on the surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate; and grinding the surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate after evaporation to remove the Au thin film on an undressed surface and retain the Au thin film in the grooves, and then obtaining the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 MSM detector.

A single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 MSM detector and a preparation method thereof, comprising: machining grooves on a single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate using a laser-assisted waterjet machining technique to form a 3D shape; wet etching the machined single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate using an HF solution to remove machining damage; performing Au evaporation on a surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate after processing, coating an Au thin film on the surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate; and grinding the surface of the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 substrate after evaporation to remove the Au thin film on an undressed surface and retain the Au thin film in the grooves, and then obtaining the single-crystal β-Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 MSM detector.

A solid ion conductive material can include a complex metal halide. The complex metal halide can include at least one alkali metal element. In an embodiment, the solid ion conductive material including the complex metal halide can be a single crystal. In another embodiment, the ion conductive material including the complex metal halide can be a crystalline material having a particular crystallographic orientation. A solid electrolyte can include the ion conductive material including the complex metal halide.

Materials, products, methods of use and fabrication thereof are disclosed. The materials are particularly well suited for application in products such as superconducting devices and quantum computing, due to ability to avoid undesirable effects from inherent noise and decoherence. The materials are formed from select isotopes having zero nuclear spin into a single crystal-phase film or layer of thickness depending on the desired application of the resulting device. The film/layer may be suspended or disposed on a substrate. The isotopes may be enriched from naturally-occurring sources of isotopically mixed elemental material(s). The single crystal is preferably essentially devoid of structural defects such as grain boundaries, inclusions, impurities and lattice vacancies.

Materials, products, methods of use and fabrication thereof are disclosed. The materials are particularly well suited for application in products such as superconducting devices and quantum computing, due to ability to avoid undesirable effects from inherent noise and decoherence. The materials are formed from select isotopes having zero nuclear spin into a single crystal-phase film or layer of thickness depending on the desired application of the resulting device. The film/layer may be suspended or disposed on a substrate. The isotopes may be enriched from naturally-occurring sources of isotopically mixed elemental material(s). The single crystal is preferably essentially devoid of structural defects such as grain boundaries, inclusions, impurities and lattice vacancies.