Exemplary methods of forming a semiconductor structure may include forming a nucleation layer on a semiconductor substrate. The exemplary methods may further include forming at least one gallium nitride (GaN)-containing region on the nucleation layer, and forming an indium-gallium-nitride (InGaN)-containing layer on the GaN-containing region. A porosified region may be formed on a portion of at least one of the GaN-containing region and the InGaN-containing layer, and an active region may be formed on the porosified region. In embodiments, the porosified region may be characterized by a void fraction of greater than or about 20 vol. %. In further embodiments, the active region may include a greater mole percentage (mol. %) indium than the porosified region or the GaN-containing region. In still further embodiments, the active region may characterized by a peak light emission at a wavelength of greater than or about 620 nm.

Disclosed is a qualitative evaluation method of a volumetric defect density due to other grains having different crystal orientations from a single crystal matrix in a (001) monoclinic gallium oxide sample or a (010) monoclinic gallium oxide sample. The method includes the steps of: forming an etch pit by etching an observation plane of a single crystal; and selecting a quadrilateral etch pit formed by volumetric defects except for void defects.

A silicon carbide substrate includes a first main surface, a second main surface, a threading screw dislocation, and a blind scratch. The second main surface is located opposite to the first main surface. The threading screw dislocation extends to each of the first main surface and the second main surface. The blind scratch is exposed at the first main surface and extends linearly as viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first main surface. A value obtained by dividing an area density of the blind scratch by an area density of threading screw dislocation is smaller than 0.13.

A group-III nitride substrate includes: a first region having a first impurity concentration in a polished surface; and a second region having a second impurity concentration lower than the first impurity concentration in the polished surface, wherein a first dislocation density of the first region is lower than a second dislocation density of the second region.

A group-III nitride substrate includes: a first region having a first impurity concentration in a polished surface; and a second region having a second impurity concentration lower than the first impurity concentration in the polished surface, wherein a first dislocation density of the first region is lower than a second dislocation density of the second region.

A semiconductor element includes a base substrate that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal having a thickness of not less than 0.05 m and not more than 50 m, and an epitaxial layer that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal and is epitaxially grown on the base substrate. A semiconductor element includes an epitaxial layer that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal including an n-type dopant, an ion implanted layer that is formed on a surface of the epitaxial layer and includes a higher concentration of n-type dopant than the epitaxial layer, an anode electrode connected to the epitaxial layer, and a cathode electrode connected to the ion implanted layer.

A semiconductor element includes a base substrate that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal having a thickness of not less than 0.05 m and not more than 50 m, and an epitaxial layer that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal and is epitaxially grown on the base substrate. A semiconductor element includes an epitaxial layer that includes a Ga.sub.2O.sub.3-based crystal including an n-type dopant, an ion implanted layer that is formed on a surface of the epitaxial layer and includes a higher concentration of n-type dopant than the epitaxial layer, an anode electrode connected to the epitaxial layer, and a cathode electrode connected to the ion implanted layer.

In one implementation, a processing system includes a first transfer chamber coupling to at least one epitaxy process chamber, a second transfer chamber, a transition station disposed between the first transfer chamber and the second transfer chamber, a first plasma chamber coupled to the second transfer chamber for removing oxides from a surface of a substrate, and a load lock chamber coupled to the second transfer chamber. The transition station connects to the first transfer chamber and the second transfer chamber, and the transition station includes a second plasma chamber for removing contaminants from the surface of the substrate.

A method of processing a super-hard material having a Vickers hardness of no less than 2000 kg/mm2, the method comprising: (a) forming a surface of the super-hard material to have a first surface profile within a first root mean square deviation being no more than 5 m; (b) analyzing said surface of the super-hard material to detect a plurality of protruding regions on said surface; and (c) selectively processing over only the protruding regions on the surface of the super-hard material to form a second surface profile within a second root mean square deviation from the smooth target surface profile, said second root mean square deviation being no more than 100 nm.

A method of processing a super-hard material having a Vickers hardness of no less than 2000 kg/mm2, the method comprising: (a) forming a surface of the super-hard material to have a first surface profile within a first root mean square deviation being no more than 5 m; (b) analyzing said surface of the super-hard material to detect a plurality of protruding regions on said surface; and (c) selectively processing over only the protruding regions on the surface of the super-hard material to form a second surface profile within a second root mean square deviation from the smooth target surface profile, said second root mean square deviation being no more than 100 nm.