According to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for forming NOx from nitrogen and oxygen, the apparatus comprising: a gliding arc discharge, GAD, device arranged to generate a plasma; a passageway including an inlet for a feed gas comprising nitrogen and oxygen and an outlet for the NO.sub.x, wherein the passageway extends, at least in part, through the GAD device wherein, in use, the nitrogen and oxygen are reacted in the generated plasma, thereby forming the NO.sub.x from at least some of the nitrogen and oxygen; and a post-discharge container for adjusting the NO.sub.2/NO ratio in the formed NO.sub.x to from 1:2 to 2:1.

A system and method for converting a common hydrogen-based input fluid into an proton-rich ionic fluid (PRIF) comprising an overabundance of hydrogen H.sub.1+ protons is disclosed. This conversion occurs in the absence of elevated temperatures or pressures, so that the resulting output fluid is suitable for shipping or storage at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP). Some practical usages for the PRIF include 1) AMMONIA MANUFACTURING WITHOUT HABER-BOSCH; 2) CRUDE OIL IMPROVEMENT (API LIFT); 3) MOLECULAR ENHANCEMENT OF HYDROCARBON; and 4) DESULFURIZATION (distillate upgrade).

A carbon capture system is used to remove carbon dioxide from flue gas emissions. The system consists of a first scrubbing column, a carbonating tower, and a separation system. In the first scrubbing column, nitrates and sulfates are removed from the flue gas, producing a purified flue gas and a bottoms product containing the sulfates and nitrates. The purified flue gas is then transferred to a carbonating tower, where it is contacted with a solution (such as brine, ammonia, or a weak base) to remove carbon dioxide, producing a lean brine solution. The lean brine solution is then filtered to recover sodium bicarbonate or soda ash.

The invention provides a method of continuous electrochemical dinitrogen reduction to produce ammonia, the method comprising: supplying dinitrogen to an electrochemical cell comprising an electrolyte in contact with at least a cathode; introducing protons to the electrolyte by anodic oxidation of a hydrogen-containing species; and cathodically reducing the dinitrogen in the presence of a metal selected from lithium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, zinc, aluminium and vanadium to produce ammonia, wherein the electrolyte comprises a cationic proton carrier capable of reversible deprotonation to form a neutral proton acceptor, wherein the neutral proton acceptor is an ylide.