A battery includes a cathode (101), an anode (102), and an electrolyte (103). The cathode (101) is made of a bicontinuous body having a three-dimensional network structure including a plurality of nanostructures. The electrolyte (103) is sandwiched between the cathode (101) and the anode (102) and made of a salt. The electrolyte (103) may be made of, e.g., an aqueous solution of one of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, or a mixture thereof. The anode (102) may contain, e.g., a metal selected from magnesium, zin, iron, and aluminum.

Various embodiments disclosed relate to a method of forming a composite including a carbon composite structure. The method includes disposing a precursor composition on a substrate. The composition includes a porogen component, a carbon component, and a catalyst component. The method further includes irradiating the precursor composition to form the carbon composite structure.

There is provided a functional layer including a layered double hydroxide. The functional layer further contains titania.

There is provided a functional layer including a layered double hydroxide, which is composed of: a plurality of basic hydroxide layers including Ni, Al, Ti, and OH groups; and intermediate layers composed of anions and H.sub.2O, each intermediate layer being interposed between two adjacent basic hydroxide layers.

There is provided a functional layer including a layered double hydroxide. The layered double hydroxide does not undergo a change in the surface microstructure and the crystalline structure when immersed in 5 mol/L of an aqueous potassium hydroxide solution containing zinc oxide in a concentration of 0.4 mol/L at 70 C. for three weeks.

There is provided a functional layer including a layered double hydroxide that contains Ni, Al, Ti and Zn, and has an atomic ratio Zn/(Ni+Ti+Al+Zn) of 0.04 or more determined by an energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS).

There is provided a functional layer including a layered double hydroxide (LDH). The functional layer includes a first layer with a thickness of 0.10 m or more, the first layer being composed of fine LDH particles having a diameter of less than 0.05 m, and a second layer composed of large LDH particles having a mean particle diameter of 0.05 m or more, the second layer being an outermost layer provided on the first layer.

There is provided a functional layer including layered double hydroxide. The functional has an average porosity of 1 to 40% and an average pore diameter of 100 nm or less.

The present invention relates to a process for the preparation of Calcium Silicate Hydrate anion exchange membrane (cement paste) with an ionic conductivity of the order of 10.sup.3 S/cm. The membrane can be formulated by mixing Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and water with the cement to water ratio of 1:0.45. After initial setting time, the membrane undergoes curing in 7% calcium chloride solution and the Cl.sup. ions in the membrane is converted to OH.sup. form by immersing into saturated Ca(OH).sub.2 solution with pH 14 and it has been washed to remove the excess alkali. This membrane has high mechanical strength (Ultimate Tensile Strength: 6.3 MPa) and does not deteriorate even at high temperature (up to 450 C.) and alkaline atmosphere (pH 11.5-14). Also disclosed is a method of producing in-situ formation of membrane electrode assembly. This invention encompasses a process for producing and using the membrane in water electrolysis and fuel cell.

Provided are separators for use in an electrochemical cell comprising (a) an inorganic oxide and (b) an organic polymer, wherein the inorganic oxide comprises organic substituents. Also provided are electrochemical cells comprising such separators.