Methods of treating spinal cord injuries are disclosed. The method comprises implanting scaffolds comprising a protruding scaffold and a supporting scaffold, wherein at least a portion of the protruding scaffold is inserted into a lesioned area of the spinal cord so as to contact the injury or diseased site, wherein the supporting scaffold does not protrude into the injury or diseased site and is in contact with the rostral and/or caudal dura of the spinal cord.

Methods of treating spinal cord injuries are disclosed. The method comprises implanting scaffolds comprising a protruding scaffold and a supporting scaffold, wherein at least a portion of the protruding scaffold is inserted into a lesioned area of the spinal cord so as to contact the injury or diseased site, wherein the supporting scaffold does not protrude into the injury or diseased site and is in contact with the rostral and/or caudal dura of the spinal cord.

Described herein are hydrogels attached to a base with the strength and fatigue comparable to that of cartilage on bone and methods of forming them. The methods and apparatuses described herein may achieve an attachment strength between a hydrogel and a substrate equivalent to the osteochondral junction. In some examples the hydrogel may be a triple-network hydrogel (such as BC-PVA-PAMPS) that is attached to a porous substrate (e.g., a titanium base) with the shear strength and fatigue strength equivalent to that of the osteochondral junction.

Described herein are hydrogels attached to a base with the strength and fatigue comparable to that of cartilage on bone and methods of forming them. The methods and apparatuses described herein may achieve an attachment strength between a hydrogel and a substrate equivalent to the osteochondral junction. In some examples the hydrogel may be a triple-network hydrogel (such as BC-PVA-PAMPS) that is attached to a porous substrate (e.g., a titanium base) with the shear strength and fatigue strength equivalent to that of the osteochondral junction.

The present disclosure provides tissue products produced from extracellular tissue matrices. The tissue products can include acellular extracellular matrices including combinations of different tissue types. The combination can harness various properties of the different tissues to provide improved composite structures with desired mechanical and/or biologic properties.

A composite material can include a gel and at least one nanostructure disposed within the gel. A method for healing a soft tissue defect can include applying a composite material to a soft tissue defect, wherein the composite material includes a gel and a nanostructure disposed within the gel. A method for manufacturing a composite material for use in healing soft tissue defects can include providing a gel and disposing nanofibers within the gel.

A composite material can include a gel and at least one nanostructure disposed within the gel. A method for healing a soft tissue defect can include applying a composite material to a soft tissue defect, wherein the composite material includes a gel and a nanostructure disposed within the gel. A method for manufacturing a composite material for use in healing soft tissue defects can include providing a gel and disposing nanofibers within the gel.

A density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant is disclosed. The implant includes a first homogeneous matrix layer and a second homogeneous matrix layer having a density different from that of the first homogeneous matrix layer. Biopolymeric fibers at the surface of the first homogeneous matrix layer are physically in contact with and cross-linked to the biopolymeric fibers at the surface of the second homogeneous matrix layer. Also disclosed is a three-dimensional density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant that includes a first homogeneous matrix surrounding a second homogeneous matrix having a different density. Biopolymeric fibers at an inner surface of the first homogeneous matrix are physically in contact with and cross-linked to biopolymeric fibers at an outer surface of the second homogeneous matrix. Furthermore, methods for preparing the density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant and the three-dimensional density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant are provided.

A density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant is disclosed. The implant includes a first homogeneous matrix layer and a second homogeneous matrix layer having a density different from that of the first homogeneous matrix layer. Biopolymeric fibers at the surface of the first homogeneous matrix layer are physically in contact with and cross-linked to the biopolymeric fibers at the surface of the second homogeneous matrix layer. Also disclosed is a three-dimensional density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant that includes a first homogeneous matrix surrounding a second homogeneous matrix having a different density. Biopolymeric fibers at an inner surface of the first homogeneous matrix are physically in contact with and cross-linked to biopolymeric fibers at an outer surface of the second homogeneous matrix. Furthermore, methods for preparing the density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant and the three-dimensional density gradient biopolymeric matrix implant are provided.

Various aspects of the present disclosure are directed toward devices, methods, and systems that include a reinforced biopolymer including a synthetic support membrane and a biopolymer. The reinforced biopolymer may have a measured optical transparency of at least 85%, a thickness of about 100 μm or less, and a toughness of at least 30 KJ/m.sup.3.