A method hydrofluorinates an olefin of the formula: RCX=CYZ to produce a hydrofluoroalkane of formula RCXFCHYZ or RCXHCFYZ, where X, Y, and Z are independently the same or different and are selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br, and C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo; and R is a C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo. The method includes reacting the olefin with HF in the vapor phase, in the presence of SbF.sub.5, at a temperature ranging from about ?30? C. to about 65? C. and compositions formed by the process.

The disclosure relates to a method for hydrofluorination of an olefin of the formula: RCX=CYZ to produce a hydrofluoroalkane of formula RCXFCHYZ or RCHXCFYZ, wherein X, Y, and Z are independently the same or different and are selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br, and C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo; and R is a C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo, comprising reacting the olefin with HF in the liquid-phase, in the presence of SbF.sub.5, at a temperature ranging from about ?30? C. to about 65? C.

The present disclosure provides methods to produce para-xylene, toluene, and other compounds from renewable sources (e.g., cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, sugar) and ethylene in the presence of a catalyst. For example, cellulose and/or hemicellulose may be converted into 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF), which may be converted into para-xylene by cycloaddition of ethylene to DMF. Para-xylene can then be oxidized to form terephthalic acid.

A method hydrofluorinates an olefin of the formula: RCX=CYZ to produce a hydrofluoroalkane of formula RCXFCHYZ or RCXHCFYZ, where X, Y, and Z are independently the same or different and are selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br, and C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo; and R is a C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo. The method includes reacting the olefin with HF in the vapor phase, in the presence of SbF.sub.5, at a temperature ranging from about 30 C. to about 65 C. and compositions formed by the process.

The disclosure relates to a method for hydrofluorination of an olefin of the formula: RCX=CYZ to produce a hydrofluoroalkane of formula RCXFCHYZ or RCHXCFYZ, wherein X, Y, and Z are independently the same or different and are selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br, and C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo; and R is a C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo, comprising reacting the olefin with HF in the liquid-phase, in the presence of SbF.sub.5, at a temperature ranging from about ?30? C. to about 65? C.

A method for producing a linear hydrocarbon, including reacting a linear aliphatic aldehyde in the presence of at least one metal ion selected from the group consisting of a vanadium ion, a manganese ion, an iron ion, a cobalt ion, an iridium ion, a copper ion, and a thallium ion.

The present disclosure provides methods to produce para-xylene, toluene, and other compounds from renewable sources (e.g., cellulose, hemicellulose) and ethylene in the presence of an acid, such as a Lewis acid. For example, cellulose and/or hemicellulose may be converted into 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF) and 2-methylfuran, which may be converted into para-xylene and toluene, respectively. In particular, para-xylene can then be oxidized to form terephthalic acid.

A method for producing ethyl lactate includes subjecting lactic acid and ethanol to an esterification reaction in the presence of an antimony catalyst, so as to obtain ethyl lactate. The antimony catalyst is selected from the group consisting of antimony trioxide, antimony pentoxide, antimony trichloride, and combinations thereof, and the esterification reaction is carried out at a temperature ranging from 80 C. to 88 C. and under a pressure of 1 atm.

A composition includes a mixture including HF, SbF.sub.5, and olefin selected from 1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropene, a chlorotetrafluoropropene, 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene, 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene, 3,3,3-trifluoropropene, and RCXCYZ. X, Y, and Z are independently the same or different and are H, F, Cl, Br, or C1-C6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo. At least one of X, Y, and Z is H, Cl, Br, or C1-C6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo. R is a C2-C6 alkyl which is partially or fully substituted with chloro or fluoro or bromo. When R is C2 alkyl which is fully substituted with fluoro, X, Y, and Z are not all H. The SbF.sub.5 is present in an amount in the range of up to about 30%, by weight of the mixture.