Radiation detecting wearable devices

Abstract

One feature pertains to a microdosimeter cell array that includes a plurality of microdosimeter cells each having a semiconductor volume adapted to generate a current in response to incident radiation. The semiconductor volumes of each of the plurality of microdosimeter cells have at least one of a size, a shape, a semiconductor type, and/or a semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with one or more cells or cell components of a human eye. A processing circuit is also communicatively coupled to the microdosimeter cell array and generates a signal based on the currents generated by the semiconductor volumes of the plurality of microdosimeter cells. The signal generated by the processing circuit is indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the microdosimeter cell array.

Claims

1. A wearable device comprising: a first microdosimeter cell array including at least a first microdosimeter cell and a second microdosimeter cell, the first microdosimeter cell having a first semiconductor volume adapted to generate a first current in response to incident radiation, the first semiconductor volume having at least one of (a) a first size approximating a size of a human eye cell, (b) a first shape approximating a shape of the human eye cell, (c) a first semiconductor doping type and concentration having an electrical conductivity that approximates an electrical conductivity of the human eye cell, and/or (d) a first semiconductor type having a linear energy transfer (LET) value for a first type of radiation that approximates an LET value of the human eye cell for the first type of radiation, the second microdosimeter cell having a second semiconductor volume adapted to generate a second current in response to the incident radiation, the second semiconductor volume having at least one of (e) a second size approximating a size of a biological cell or cell component, (f) a second shape approximating a shape of the biological cell or cell component, (g) a second semiconductor doping type and concentration having an electrical conductivity that approximates an electrical conductivity of the biological cell or cell component, and/or (h) a second semiconductor type having an LET value for the first type of radiation that approximates an LET value of the biological cell or cell component for the first type of radiation, and wherein the biological cell or cell component is different than the human eye cell and at least one of the second size is different than the first size, the second shape is different than the first shape, the second semiconductor type is different than the first semiconductor type, and/or the second semiconductor doping type and concentration is different than the first semiconductor doping type and concentration; and a processing circuit communicatively coupled to the first microdosimeter cell array and adapted to generate a first signal based on the first current and the second current generated by the first and second semiconductor volumes, the first signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the first microdosimeter cell array.

2. The wearable device of claim 1, wherein the human eye cell is an epithelial cell of the human eye.

3. The wearable device of claim 1, further comprising: an output device communicatively coupled to the processing circuit, the output device adapted to output radiation information based on the first signal.

4. The wearable device of claim 3, wherein the radiation information provides at least one of an audible warning and/or visual warning that radiation levels have been detected that may cause cataracts and/or blindness to a user wearing the wearable device.

5. The wearable device of claim 1, further comprising: a frame adapted to couple to a human face, the first microdosimeter cell array coupled to the frame.

6. The wearable device of claim 5, wherein the frame is an eye glass frame.

7. The wearable device of claim 6, wherein the first microdosimeter cell array is positioned on a first rim, a first temple, and/or a bridge of the frame between the first rim and a second rim.

8. The wearable device of claim 7, further comprising: a second microdosimeter cell array coupled to at least one of the second rim and/or a second temple of the frame, the second microdosimeter cell array including a plurality of microdosimeter cells each having a semiconductor volume adapted to generate current in response to the incident radiation, the semiconductor volumes of each of the plurality of microdosimeter cells of the second microdosimeter cell array having at least one of the first size, the first shape, the first semiconductor doping type and concentration, and the first semiconductor type, and wherein the processing circuit is communicatively coupled to the second microdosimeter cell array and adapted to generate a second signal based on the current generated by the semiconductor volumes of the second plurality of microdosimeter cells, the second signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the second microdosimeter cell array.

9. The wearable device of claim 1, wherein the first microdosimeter cell array has a silicon on insulator (SOI) structure having at least a portion of a bottom silicon substrate layer under an insulator layer removed to form a cavity exposing the insulator layer.

10. The wearable device of claim 9, wherein the cavity is filled with a tissue equivalent material.

11. The wearable device of claim 1, further comprising: a microphone communicatively coupled to the processing circuit and adapted to receive voice commands that retrieve radiation information from the processing circuit, the radiation information indicative of the amount of radiation absorbed by the first microdosimeter cell array.

12. The wearable device of claim 1, further comprising: a wireless communication interface communicatively coupled to the processing circuit, the wireless communication interface adapted to transmit, to another device, a message that includes information indicative of the amount of radiation absorbed by the first microdosimeter cell array.

13. The wearable device of claim 1, wherein the first semiconductor volume and the second semiconductor volume each have a lateral dimension ranging from 4 μm to 100 μm.

14. A wearable device comprising: a microdosimeter cell array including a first plurality of microdosimeter cells and a second plurality of microdosimeter cells, the first plurality of microdosimeter cells each having a first semiconductor volume adapted to generate a first current in response to incident radiation, the first semiconductor volume of each of the first plurality of microdosimeter cells having a first size, a first shape, a first semiconductor type, a first semiconductor doping type, and a first semiconductor doping concentration, and the second plurality of microdosimeter cells each having a second semiconductor volume adapted to generate a second current in response to incident radiation, the second semiconductor volume of each of the second plurality of microdosimeter cells having a second size, a second shape, a second semiconductor type, a second semiconductor doping type, and a second semiconductor doping concentration, wherein at least one of the second size is different than the first size, the second shape is different than the first shape, the second semiconductor type is different than the first semiconductor type, the second semiconductor doping type is different than the first semiconductor doping type, and/or the second semiconductor doping concentration is different than the first semiconductor doping concentration; and a processing circuit communicatively coupled to the microdosimeter cell array and configured to generate a signal based on the first current and the second current, the signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the first plurality microdosimeter cells and the second plurality of microdosimeter cells.

15. The wearable device of claim 14, wherein the first plurality of microdosimeter cells are associated with a human eye cell such that at least one of the first size approximates a size of a human eye cell, the first shape approximates a shape of the human eye cell, the first semiconductor type has a linear energy transfer (LET) value for a first type of radiation that approximates an LET value of the human eye cell for the first type of radiation, and/or the first semiconductor doping type and the first semiconductor doping concentration causes the first semiconductor volume to have an electrical conductivity that approximates an electrical conductivity of the human eye cell.

16. The wearable device of claim 15, further comprising: an output device communicatively coupled to the processing circuit, the output device adapted to output at least one of an audio and/or visual warning indicating that radiation levels have been detected that may cause cataracts and/or blindness.

17. The wearable device of claim 15, wherein the human eye cell is an epithelial cell, and the wearable device further comprises: a frame adapted to couple to a human face, the microdosimeter cell array coupled to the frame.

18. A method of manufacturing a wearable device, the method comprising: obtaining a linear energy transfer (LET) value of a human eye lens epithelial cell for a first type of radiation; determining a semiconductor type having an LET value for the first type of radiation that approximates the LET value of the human eye lens epithelial cell obtained; forming a microdosimeter cell array including a plurality of microdosimeter cells each having a semiconductor volume adapted to generate a current in response to incident radiation, the semiconductor volumes of each of the plurality of microdosimeter cells formed with the semiconductor type determined to have the LET value for the first type of radiation that approximates the LET value of the human eye lens epithelial cell obtained; and communicatively coupling a processing circuit to the microdosimeter cell array, the processing circuit adapted to generate a signal based on the current generated by the semiconductor volumes of the plurality of microdosimeter cells, the signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the microdosimeter cell array.

19. The method of claim 18, further comprising: coupling a frame to the microdosimeter cell array, the frame adapted to be worn on a human face.

20. The method of claim 18, further comprising: communicatively coupling an output device to the processing circuit, the output device adapted to output at least one of an audio and/or visual warning indicating that radiation levels have been detected that may cause cataracts and/or blindness.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic block diagram of a radiation microdosimeter.

(2) FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic top view of a detector cell of the radiation microdosimeter.

(3) FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector cell.

(4) FIG. 4 illustrates another schematic cross-sectional view of the detector cell.

(5) FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of a human neutrophil white blood cell.

(6) FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic top view of a detector cell having a semi-circular shape.

(7) FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector cell having the semi-circular shape.

(8) FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary LET plot that shows the energy transfer of a proton/hydrogen nuclei traveling through three types of semiconductors, water, and cortical bone.

(9) FIG. 9 illustrates an example of an exemplary LET plot that shows the energy transfer of protons traveling through silicon and skeletal muscle.

(10) FIG. 10 illustrates an example of an exemplary LET plot that shows the energy transfer of protons traveling through germanium and cortical bone.

(11) FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic top view of another exemplary detector.

(12) FIG. 12 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector shown in FIG. 11.

(13) FIG. 13 illustrates a schematic top view of yet another detector.

(14) FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector shown in FIG. 13.

(15) FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic top view of yet another detector.

(16) FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector shown in FIG. 15.

(17) FIG. 17 illustrates a schematic block diagram of another radiation dosimeter.

(18) FIG. 18 illustrates a table that shows exemplary relative radiation sensitivity scaling factors for various biological cell types associated with a biological organism.

(19) FIG. 19 illustrates another table that shows exemplary relative radiation sensitivity scaling factors for various biological cell component/organelle types associated with a biological cell.

(20) FIG. 20 illustrates a flow chart of an exemplary method.

(21) FIG. 21 illustrates several distinct regions that make up the human lens.

(22) FIG. 22 illustrates the relation between radiation exposure and the cortical opacity of the lens.

(23) FIG. 23 illustrates how radiation causes lens opacity.

(24) FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary microdosimeter cell that may be fabricated having a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structure and also an approximate size and/or shape of an eye lens epithelial cell.

(25) FIG. 25 illustrates a “Mesa” cross-section microdosimeter can be constructed using integrated circuit technology

(26) FIG. 26 illustrates schematically an SOI microdosimeter.

(27) FIG. 27 illustrates a wearable device that detects radiation.

(28) FIG. 28 illustrates a schematic block diagram of a wearable device.

(29) FIG. 29 illustrates a method of manufacturing a wearable device featuring one or more microdosimeter cell arrays.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(30) In the following description, specific details are given to provide a thorough understanding of the various aspects of the disclosure. However, it will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the aspects may be practiced without these specific details. For example, circuits may be shown in block diagrams in order to avoid obscuring the aspects in unnecessary detail. In other instances, well-known circuits, structures and techniques may not be shown in detail in order not to obscure the aspects of the disclosure.

(31) The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration.” Any implementation or aspect described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects of the disclosure. Likewise, the term “aspects” does not require that all aspects of the disclosure include the discussed feature, advantage or mode of operation. The term “communicatively coupled” is used herein to mean that two or more elements may communicate with one another (e.g., by transmitting signals between them) either directly or indirectly and via wirelessly or through wired connection.

(32) The terms wafer and substrate may be used herein to include any structure having an exposed surface with which to form an integrated circuit (IC) according to aspects of the present disclosure. The term substrate is understood to include semiconductor wafers. The term substrate is also used to refer to semiconductor structures during fabrication, and may include other layers that have been fabricated thereupon. The term substrate includes doped and undoped semiconductors, epitaxial semiconductor layers supported by a base semiconductor, or semiconductor layers supported by an insulator, as well as other semiconductor structures well known to one skilled in the art. The term insulator is defined to include any material that is less electrically conductive than materials generally referred to as conductors by those skilled in the art. The term “horizontal” is defined as a plane substantially parallel to the conventional plane or surface of a wafer or substrate, regardless of the orientation of the wafer or substrate. The term “vertical” refers to a direction substantially perpendicular to the horizontal as defined above. Prepositions, such as “on,” “upper,” “side,” “higher,” “lower,” “over,” and “under” when used with respect to the integrated circuits described herein are defined with respect to the conventional plane or surface being on the top surface of the wafer or substrate, regardless of the orientation of the wafer or substrate. The prepositions “on,” “upper,” “side,” “higher,” “lower,” “over,” and “under” are thereby defined with respect to “horizontal” and “vertical.”

(33) P-type conductivity is conductivity associated with holes in a semiconductor material, and n-type conductivity is conductivity associated with electrons in a semiconductor material.

(34) Overview

(35) A radiation detector that has the shape and/or size of an individual biological cell type or cell component type is disclosed. The radiation detector may also be fabricated to approximate the biological cell or cell component type's absorption of radiation. For example, this may be accomplished by fabricating the detector with different semiconductors, and/or using various dopants to adjust for approximate cell composition and absorption characteristics. It is noted that human tissue cells vary with tissue function. In general, radiation is most deleterious to cells whose function involves continuous cell division, such as, but not limited to spermatogonia, erythroblasts, epidermal stem cells, eye lens epithelial cells, and gastrointestinal stem cells. Other cells that do not necessarily involve rapid, continuous cell division yet are still very sensitive to radiation are oocytes and lymphocytes. Thus, the radiation detector may include an array of semiconductor detectors each having different sizes, shapes, and dopants—to mimic the cells found in biological tissue that is, for example, especially sensitive to radiation, such as the aforementioned cell types. The different detectors of the array can have individual “quality factors,” and the total radiation exposure level can be determined by weighting the various detectors by their distribution in the body.

(36) Since the detector arrays may be very small, they may be embedded in tissue-equivalent absorbers to mimic the radiation reaching them if they are deep within the body. Such tissue-equivalent absorbers may be plastics such as polyethylene or water. In some aspects, this may help increase the accuracy of measuring absorbed radiation. Depending on the physical characteristics of the absorber, the presence of the absorbed dose reading may decrease due to attenuation of the radiation, increase due to buildup of secondary radiation, or remain unchanged due to competing effects.

(37) According to one aspect, the present disclosure provides a microdosimeter, comprising an array of three-dimensional p-n junction semiconductor detectors, each providing a sensitive volume-target (e.g., semiconductor volume) that correlates to cells or cell components. The semiconductor volume may be further encased or covered by a tissue equivalent medium to better approximate the radiation reaching the cell or cell component that the microdosimeter cell array mimics. The tissue equivalent medium generates secondary charged particles that may also be detected and measured by the semiconductor volume.

(38) According to one aspect, the radiation detector may approximate the size of specific cells in tissue, such as, but not limited to, white blood cells, bone cells, gastro-intestinal cells. According to another aspect, the radiation detector may approximate the size of cell components, such as, but not limited to, a cell nucleolus. According to another aspect, the detector may approximate the radiation absorption characteristics of specific cells and/or cell components by doping the semiconductor of the detector to equivalent electrical characteristics. According to yet another aspect, the detector may approximate the radiation absorption characteristics of specific cells and/or cell components by doping the semiconductor to equivalent radiation absorption characteristics. According to another aspect, the detector may approximate the radiation absorption characteristics of specific cells and/or cell components by using a semiconductor that has equivalent radiation absorption characteristics.

(39) Biological cells from different tissues of the body differ from one another across a wide range of features and characteristics including but not limited to their size, shape, electrical conductivity, and linear energy transfer (LET) values (i.e., the rate of linear energy transferred to the cell by ionizing particles travelling through cell). Similarly, different biological cell components within a single cell also differ from one another across, among other things, their size, shape, electrical conductivity, and LET values. Notably, the microdosimeters described herein feature detector cells that include semiconductor volumes that have at least one of a size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value(s) that correspond to and approximately match the size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value(s) of a biological cell type or biological cell component type in order to reduce the Radiation Detector Correction Factor (RDCF) needed and thus more accurately approximate the actual radiation absorbed by the biological cell type or cell component type.

(40) Exemplary Microdosimeter

(41) FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic block diagram of a radiation microdosimeter 100 according to one aspect of the present disclosure. The microdosimeter 100 includes a detector array 102 coupled to a processing circuit 104. The detector array 102 includes one or more individual detectors 106 (may also be referred to herein as “detector cells” and “microdosimeter cells”). As will be explained in greater detail below, the detectors 106 generate a current and/or electric charge in proportion to the amount of ionizing radiation they are exposed to. The processing circuit 104 receives and/or monitors the current and/or electric charge generated by the detectors 106 and then calculates a radiation level value based on the current and/or electric charge. The microdosimeter 100 may then display the radiation level value calculated to a user of the microdosimeter 100 in order to ascertain detrimental health effects from radiation exposure. According to one example, the processing circuit 104 is configured to generate a signal based on the one or more currents and/or electric charges generated by the one or more detectors 106, and the signal generated is indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the microdosimeter cell array 102.

(42) FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate schematic views of a single detector cell 106 according to one aspect. Specifically, FIG. 2 shows a top view of the detector 106, and FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of the detector 106 taken along the line 3-3 of FIG. 2. Referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, the radiation microdosimeter cell 106 comprises a first semiconductor region 202 and a second semiconductor region 204. The first semiconductor region 202 may be a heavily doped n-type semiconductor region (e.g., N+ region) and the second semiconductor region 204 may be a heavily doped p-type semiconductor region (e.g., P+ region). In this example, the second semiconductor region 204 forms a concentric oval-shaped ring that surrounds the inner, first semiconductor region 202. The first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204 may reside in a p-type semiconductor well 206. The p-type semiconductor well 206 may contain concentrations of a p-type dopant (e.g., boron, gallium, etc.) that are order(s) of magnitude less than the heavily doped p+-type semiconductor region 204. Both the first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204 serve as contact points for electrical conductors 306a, 306b, 306c, such as ohmic contacts. The electrical conductors 306a, 306b, 306c transmit current signals generated within the detector 106 to the processing circuit 104 (see FIG. 1). Although in the example illustrated in FIGS. 2-3 the first semiconductor region 202 includes one electrical contact 306b, according to other examples the first semiconductor region 202 may have a plurality of contacts. Similarly, in the example shown the second semiconductor region 204 includes two electrical contacts 306a, 306c, but in other aspects it may include any number of electrical contacts equal to or greater than one (1).

(43) Each detector cell of the microdosimeters described herein has a “radiation-sensitive semiconductor volume” associated with it that—as will be more fully described below—absorbs energy from ionizing radiation, and in response generates currents (e.g., an electron current and a hole current created by electron-hole pairs) and/or electric charge proportional to the amount of radiation absorbed. Thus, the radiation-sensitive semiconductor volume (also referred to herein as “semiconductor volume”) comprises that portion of the detector cell's semiconductor material that is capable of absorbing the ionizing radiation and generating the aforementioned currents and/or electric charge.

(44) For example, referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, the semiconductor volume includes at least the semiconductor well 206. Thus, according to one aspect, the detector's 106 semiconductor volume (SV) may be equal to the detector width w multiplied by the detector length l multiplied by the detector depth d less the volumes V.sub.R1 and V.sub.R2 occupied by the first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204, respectively (equation (1)).
SV=w*l*d−(V.sub.R1+V.sub.R2)  (1).

(45) According to another aspect, in addition to the semiconductor well 206, the semiconductor volume may further include the first and/or second semiconductor regions 202, 204. Thus, according to one aspect, the detector's 106 semiconductor volume may be equal to the detector width w multiplied by the detector length l multiplied by the detector depth d (equation (2)).
SV=w*l*d  (2).

(46) The microdosimeter cell 106 may also have a device width w.sub.x that extends from the midpoint of one end of the second semiconductor region 204 to the midpoint of another end (directly across the diameter) of the second semiconductor region 204 as shown in FIG. 3. The dimensions of width (detector or device) and length may herein be referred to as a “lateral dimension.”

(47) FIG. 4 also illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector 106 taken along the line 3-3 of FIG. 2. Specifically, FIG. 4 demonstrates the effects of ionizing incident radiation upon a first surface 302 (e.g., top surface) of the detector 106 according to one aspect of the disclosure. The ionizing incident radiation may be, for example, cosmic rays, alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, neutrons, and/or generally any charged particle moving at relativistic speeds. In the illustrated example, the detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., p-type well 206) absorbs at least a portion of the incident radiation energy. As the semiconductor volume absorbs radiation energy, electron-hole pairs 402a, 402b are generated in the semiconductor volume as shown. The greater the amount of radiation energy absorbed by the semiconductor volume the greater the number of electron-hole pairs 402a, 402b generated. When a voltage is applied between the first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204 as shown (e.g., positive supply voltage V.sub.DD applied to the P+ type second semiconductor region 204 and ground V.sub.SS applied to N+ type first semiconductor region 202), an electric field (indicated by the dashed arrows) is created within the semiconductor volume.

(48) The electron-hole pairs 402a, 402b generated by the absorbed radiation are drawn apart by the electrical field such that electrons 402a move to the P+ type semiconductor region 204 electrical contacts 306a, 306c and holes 402b move to the N+ type semiconductor region 202 electrical contact 306b. These charges 402a, 402b produce a current within the semiconductor volume that can be measured and analyzed to determine the amount of radiation absorbed in the semiconductor volume. According to one example, the electron 402a current flowing toward the P+ type semiconductor region electrical contacts 306a, 306c may be analyzed rather than the hole 402b current flowing to the N+ type semiconductor region electrical contact 306b since the electrons 402a generated by the absorbed radiation have approximately three times the velocity (mobility) of the holes 402b. For example, the electron 402a current flowing into the P+ type semiconductor region 204 may form a sharper electronic pulse than the hole current flowing into the N+ type semiconductor region 202. In other examples, both the electron 402a current and/or the 402b hole current may be analyzed to determine the radiation absorbed.

(49) As will be described in more detail below, the semiconductor volume of the detector 106 is designed/manufactured to mimic a specific biological cell or biological cell component. Biological cells from various tissues of the body differ from one another across a wide range of features and characteristics including, but not limited to, their size, shape, electrical conductivity, and LET values. Similarly, different biological cell components within a single cell also differ from one another across, among other things, their own size, shape, electrical conductivity, and LET values. Notably, the microdosimeters described herein feature detector cells that include semiconductor volumes that have at least one of a size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value(s) that approximately match the size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value(s) of a biological cell or biological cell component in order to reduce the RDCF needed and thus more accurately measure the actual radiation absorbed by the biological cell or cell component.

(50) FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic, cross-sectional view of a human neutrophil white blood cell 500 according to one aspect. The white blood cell 500 is just one example of a biological cell that the detector 106 may be designed to mimic (e.g, size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value) in order to approximate the radiation absorbed by the biological cell. White blood cells are one of the body's cells that are most sensitive to radiation exposure, and neutrophils 500 account for about 50% to 70% of the total white blood cells in the human body. Among other organelles, a neutrophil white blood cell includes a nucleus 502 having genetic material 504, golgi apparatus 506, specific granules 508, azurophil granules 510, mitochondrion 512, and endoplasmic reticulum 514, all of which are suspended within the neutrophil's cytoplasm 516. A typical neutrophil cell 500 is generally spherical and is about 12-15 μm in diameter. The neutrophil's components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 may have various shapes and sizes, and are smaller than the neutrophil cell 500 itself. For example, the specific granules 508 and azurophil granules 510 may be generally spherical and have a diameter of about 1 μm. Mitochondrion typically have a length that is about 0.5 μm to 1.0 μm.

(51) The electrical conductivity of the neutrophil cell 500 may vary depending the state of the immune system of the host (e.g., whether the immune system is responding to an infection, toxin, etc.). Given a specific state of the immune system, the electrical conductivity of the neutrophil cell 500 and/or neutrophil cell's components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 may be empirically collected and tabulated. Similarly, the LET values of the neutrophil cell 500 and/or its individual cell components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 that are associated with various charged particles (e.g., alpha particles, protons, neutrons, beta particles, etc.) may also be empirically collected and tabulated.

(52) According to one example, a detector 106 or a plurality of detectors 106 within a microdosimeter 100 may be designed/manufactured to mimic a neutrophil cell 500 and/or any one of the neutrophil cell components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. Specifically, at least one of the plurality of detectors 106 of the microdosimeter 100 may be fabricated so that at least one of its size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET value(s) approximates that of a neutrophil cell 500 or component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514.

(53) For example, the width w, length l, and depth d of the detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., well 206) may be sized so as to approximate the average dimensions and/or average volume of the neutrophil cell 500 (e.g., resulting in a substantially cube-shaped structure 12-15 μm across). As another example, the width w, length l, and depth d of the detector's semiconductor volume may be sized so as to approximate the average dimensions and/or average volume of any one of the neutrophil cell's components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. Of course, the width w, length l, and depth d of the detector's semiconductor volume may be sized so as to approximate the average dimensions and/or average volume of any biological cell type or biological cell component type.

(54) Moreover, the detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., well 206) may be fabricated such that its shape, at least in part, approximates the shape of the neutrophil cell 500. For example, FIGS. 6 and 7 illustrate a detector 600 substantively similar in operation to the detector 106 of FIG. 1. For example, the detector 600 still comprises a heavily doped n-type first semiconductor region 602 and a heavily doped p-type second semiconductor region 604 formed within a p-type well 606. However, the semiconductor volume (e.g., the p-type well 606) of the detector 600 shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 has a semi-spherical shape (e.g., width w and length l are approximately equal and the depth d is w/2). That is, the semiconductor volume bounded by the planar, first surface (e.g., top surface) 702 and the curved, second surface 704 forms a semi-spherical shape. In this fashion, the detector 600 may approximate the shape of half of the neutrophil cell 500 or half of the neutrophil's components that also have spherical shapes (e.g., granules 508, 510). The other half of the neutrophil cell 500 or neutrophil component 508, 510 may be approximated with another semi-spherical shaped detector within the microdosimeter 100, which may have a plurality/array of detectors 106, 600. Generally, the detector's semiconductor volume may be fabricated such that its shape, at least in part, approximates the shape of any of the neutrophil's components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514.

(55) Furthermore, the detector's semiconductor volume may be fabricated with a semiconductor material having a particular doping concentration that approximates the conductivity of the neutrophil cell 500 or cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. For example, the semiconductor volume may be doped with various elements (e.g., phosphorus if the semiconductor volume is n-type, or boron if the semiconductor volume is p-type) to various degrees in order to replicate the conductivity of the neutrophil cell 500 or component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. Silicon may be doped to change its conductivity by over six orders of magnitude. For example, single-crystal silicon doped with phosphorus to a level of 10.sup.12/cm.sup.3 may have a resistivity of approximately 25,000 Ω-cm, which can be used to mimic the resistivity of cells or cell components that are as conductive as insulators (e.g., cortical bone cells). By contrast, doping the single-crystal silicon to 10.sup.19/cm.sup.3 may provide a resistivity of about 0.01 Ω-cm, which may be used to mimic cell components that are as conductive as common conductors (e.g., cell or cell components that are predominantly saline). Since most if not all cells, cell components (e.g., organelles), and tissues lie within this range of conductivity, the detector's 106 semiconductor volume (e.g., p-type well 206) may be doped with, for example, boron to a doping concentration between the above given range. According to one aspect, the semiconductor volume's semiconductor doping type and concentration may be adjusted such that the first semiconductor volume has a conductivity that is configured to approximate within +/−5%, +/−10%, +/−15%, +/−20%, +/−25%, +/−30%, +/−35%, +/−40%, +/−45%, or +/−50% of the conductivity of the first biological cell type or first biological cell component type that the microdosimeter cell's semiconductor volume is attempting to mimic.

(56) For instance, in order to mimic the conductivity of a neutrophil cell 500, which contains a moderate amount of ions and water, the boron doping concentration may be closer to higher end of the range (i.e., closer to the 10.sup.19/cm.sup.3). The conductivity of the neutrophil components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 may be similarly mimicked by varying the doping concentration of boron within the p-type well 206 of other detector 106 cells until the p-type well 206 conductivity matches the conductivity of a given cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514.

(57) Additionally, the detector's semiconductor volume may be fabricated using a semiconductor material and/or combination of materials that approximate the LET values (for one or more ionizing radiation particles) of the neutrophil cell 500 or cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. As discussed in greater detail below, some semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, have LET value characteristics that closely match the LET value characteristics of different types of body tissues/cells. Therefore, germanium, silicon, and/or even carbon may be used to fabricate the semiconductor volume (e.g., p-type well 206) of the detector 106 until its LET values closely match the LET values of the neutrophil cell 500 or cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514.

(58) As discussed above, the detector cell's 106 semiconductor volume may be sized, shaped, and fabricated (e.g., doping concentration and semiconductors used) to match the neutrophil cell 500 as a whole. Alternatively, the microdosimeter 100 comprising an array of detectors 106 (see FIG. 1) may have at least one detector that is sized, shaped, and fabricated to approximate each neutrophil component/organelle (e.g., golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, etc.) 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. For example, one or more detectors 106 may be sized, shaped, and fabricated to match the size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET values of the nucleus 502, while another one or more detectors 106 may be sized, shaped, and fabricated to match the size, shape, electrical conductivity, and/or LET values of the mitochondrion 512, and so on. In this fashion, the radiation exposure for the entire neutrophil cell 500 may be determined piecemeal by determining the radiation exposure to each cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514. According to one aspect, the determined radiation exposure for each cell component 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 may be weighted with a sensitivity factor (e.g., indicative of the sensitivity to radiation and the importance of that component) and summed together to determine the final radiation exposure of the entire cell. Since the detector's 106 semiconductor volume may be fabricated smaller than 0.1 μm in diameter (e.g., width w and/or length l in FIG. 2), the radiation exposure of even the smallest cellular components of the neutrophil cell 500 may be approximated.

(59) The discussion above related to designing/manufacturing the detector 106 to approximate the characteristics of a neutrophil cell 500 or its components 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 512, 514 are merely examples. In practice any of the detectors described herein may be designed/manufactured so that their size, shape, electrical conductivity, LET values, and/or other characteristics that affect radiation absorption approximate the corresponding feature of a biological tissue, cell, or cell component (e.g., organelle). Such biological tissues, cells, and cell components are not limited to human tissues, cells, and cell components.

(60) FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary LET plot 800 that shows the energy transfer of a proton/hydrogen nuclei (e.g., one type of ionizing radiation) traveling through three types of semiconductors (e.g., carbon, silicon, and germanium), water, and cortical bone. On the vertical axis, the energy transfer is measured in kilo-electron-volt per micrometer (keV/μm), which translates to about 300 electron/hole pairs created within a given medium per μm of path length. As shown in the plot 800, germanium absorbs a greater amount of radiation energy from a proton traveling through it per μm than silicon, which in turn absorbs a greater amount of radiation energy from a proton traveling through it per μm than carbon. Notably, it may be observed that germanium and cortical bone have very similar LET value characteristics compared to one another when the kinetic energy of the proton is less than about 300 keV. For example, for a proton having a kinetic energy of 100 keV, germanium and cortical bone have LET values that are within about 5% of each other. For a proton having a kinetic energy of 300 keV, germanium and cortical bone have LET values that are within about 15% of each other. Similarly, silicon and cortical bone have very similar LET value characteristics compared to one another when the kinetic energy of the proton is greater than about 300 keV. For example, for a proton having a kinetic energy of 1000 keV, silicon and cortical bone have LET values that are within 5% of each other. According to the plot 800 shown, carbon and water have very similar LET value characteristics as well. For example, for a proton having a kinetic energy between 100 and 100,000 keV, carbon and water have LET values that are within 8% of each other or less. Most biological tissues, cells, and cell components have LET value characteristics that lie in between these curves.

(61) Consequently, germanium and/or silicon may be used to fabricate a detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., well, such as p-type well 206) in cases where the detector is attempting to replicate the radiation absorption characteristics of bone tissue/cells, since bone tissue has a relatively high LET value compared to other tissues/cells. Similarly, carbon may be used, at least in part, to fabricate a detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., well, such as p-type well 206) in cases where the detector is attempting to replicate the radiation absorption characteristics of a tissue, cell, or cell component that has a relatively low LET value compared to other tissues/cells. A detector's semiconductor volume may be fabricated using a combination of germanium, silicon, and/or carbon according to varying proportions to one another to replicate the LET value characteristics of various tissues, cells, or cell components that have LET values that lie between the LET values of carbon, silicon, and germanium.

(62) FIG. 9 illustrates an example of an exemplary LET plot 900 that shows the energy transfer of protons traveling through silicon and skeletal muscle. The LET plot 900 shown is in units of electron-hole pairs generated per μm of path length. It may be observed that silicon and skeletal muscle have very similar LET value characteristics compared to one another for most proton kinetic energies. For example, for a proton having a kinetic energy of 100 keV, silicon and skeletal muscle have LET values that are within about 5% of each other. Thus, a detector's semiconductor volume fabricated using silicon is a close surrogate for skeletal muscle tissue.

(63) FIG. 10 illustrates an example of an exemplary LET plot 1000 that shows the energy transfer of protons traveling through germanium and cortical bone. The LET plot 1000 shown is in units of electron-hole pairs generated per μm of path length. As described above, it may be observed that germanium and cortical bone have relatively similar LET value characteristics compared to one another for most proton kinetic energies. For example, for a proton having a kinetic energy of 100 keV, germanium and cortical bone have LET values that are within about 5% of each other. Thus, a detector's semiconductor volume fabricated using germanium is a close surrogate for cortical bone tissue.

(64) Semiconductor alloys that combine carbon, silicon, germanium, and other elements provide a myriad of different types material that can be used to fabricate the semiconductor volume of any of the detectors described herein. Thus, any cell or cell component may be mimicked, in part, by selecting a specific semiconductor or combination of semiconductors/elements for a detector's semiconductor volume in order to best match the cell or cell component's LET value characteristics. According to one example, a semiconductor or combination of semiconductors may be used for a detector's semiconductor volume such that the semiconductor volume has an LET plot line that is within +/−5%, +/−10%, +/−15%, +/−20%, +/−25%, +/−30%, +/−35%, +/−40%, +/−45%, or +/−50% of the LET values of the cell type being matched for protons having a kinetic energy between 10 keV and 100,000 keV.

(65) The LET value characteristics in a detector's semiconductor volume may be dependent on many factors, including but not limited to: the atomic number of the atoms in the semiconductor volume; the atomic density of the semiconductor volume; the material conductivity of the semiconductor volume; the lattice structure of the semiconductor volume; and the presence of defects in the semiconductor volume. As such, in addition to the specific semiconductor used for the detector's semiconductor volume, any of the aforementioned factors may be varied in an attempt to mimic the LET value characteristics of a biological tissue, cell, or cell component.

(66) Additional Exemplary Aspects of Microdosimeter

(67) According to the example shown in FIGS. 2-4, the first semiconductor region 202 in the center of the detector 200 is n-type and the second semiconductor region 204 is p-type. However, in other aspects the first semiconductor region 202 may be a heavily doped p-type (i.e., P+ type) semiconductor region and the outer, second semiconductor region 204 may be a heavily doped n-type (i.e., N+ type) semiconductor region. An example of such a detector 1100 is shown in FIGS. 11 and 12.

(68) Specifically, FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic top view of the detector 1100, and FIG. 12 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector 1100 taken along the line 12-12 shown in FIG. 11. Although the first semiconductor region 1102 and second semiconductor region 1104 have a doping type that is reversed with respect to the semiconductor regions 202, 204 of the detector 106, both detectors 106, 1100 may provide substantially similar performance.

(69) The detectors described herein are not limited to any particular shape. For example, the detector 106 shown in FIGS. 2-4 have first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204 that are oval shaped. However, according to other aspects as described in part below, the first and second semiconductor regions 202, 204 may be rectangular, triangular, or have any other shape.

(70) FIG. 13 illustrates a schematic top view of a detector 1300 according to one aspect. FIG. 14 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector 1300 taken along the line 14-14 shown in FIG. 13. Unlike the oval detector 106 shown in FIG. 1, the detector 1300 shown in FIGS. 13 and 14 is rectangular in that the first and second semiconductor regions 1302, 1304 and the p-type well 1306 are concentric rectangles. The detector's semiconductor volume (e.g., p-type well 1306) has a width w, a length l, and a depth d. In one aspect, the width w and the length l are equal so that the detector 1300 is square cross-section. The detector 1300 operates in the same fashion described above with respect to the detector 106 shown in FIG. 1.

(71) FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic top view of a radiation detector cell 1500 according to another aspect. FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic cross-sectional view of the detector cell 1500 taken along the line 16-16 of FIG. 15. Referring to FIGS. 15 and 16, the radiation detector cell 1500 is similar to the radiation detector cell 106 of FIGS. 2-4 except that the detector 1500 shown in FIG. 15 includes a third concentric ring-shaped semiconductor region 1506 that surrounds the first and second semiconductor regions 1502, 1504. The first, second, and third semiconductor regions 1502, 1504, 1506 reside within, for example, a p-type well 1508 (e.g., semiconductor volume). The third semiconductor region 1506 has the same doping type as the central, first semiconductor region 1502. In the illustrated example, the first and third semiconductor regions 1502, 1506 are P+ type, and the second semiconductor region 1504 is N+ type. However, in other aspects, the first and third semiconductor regions 1502, 1506 may be N+ type, and the second semiconductor region 1504 may be P+ type.

(72) The detector 1500 operates in a somewhat similar fashion to the detector 106 of FIGS. 2-4. For example, incident radiation generates electron-hole pairs 1606a, 1606b within the semiconductor volume (e.g., p-type well 1508). If the first and third semiconductor regions 1502, 1506 are coupled to the supply voltage V.sub.DD and the second semiconductor region 1504 is coupled to ground, an electric field (as illustrated by the dashed arrows) is created within the semiconductor volume 1508 that sweeps the electrons 1606a toward the P+ regions 1502, 1506 and the holes 1606b toward the N+ region 1504. These electrons 1606a and holes 1606b produce a current signal that can be measured and analyzed by a processing circuit (e.g., processing circuit 104 in FIG. 1) to determine the amount of radiation absorbed by the detector 1500.

(73) Notably, the P+ type third semiconductor region 1506 “frames” the detector 1500 such that the electric field generated flows toward both sets of P+ regions 1502, 1506, and any current leakage that may otherwise flow out from the sides 1608 of the detector cell 1500 is reduced. The microdosimeter cell 1500 has a width w, a length l, and a depth d. According to one aspect, the width w and the length l may be equal so that the detector 1500 has a circular cross-section. According to another aspect, the detector 1500 may have a semi-spherical shape such that the first surface (top surface) 1602 is planar (e.g., flat) and the second surface (bottom surface) 1604 is a semi-circular curve (i.e., similar to the detector 600 shown in FIG. 7). According to another aspect, the detector 1500 may be rectangular or square such as the detector 1300 shown in FIGS. 13 and 14.

(74) According to one aspect, the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 described above may be considered “planar” detectors in that the top surface 302, 702, 1202, 1402, 1602 that is exposed to the ionizing radiation is flat and/or level. According to other aspects the top surface may not be flat but instead have another three dimensional shape, such as a semi-spherical shape (e.g., similar to the second surface 704 in FIG. 7).

(75) Exemplary Radiation Dosimeter

(76) FIG. 17 illustrates a schematic block diagram of a radiation microdosimeter 1700 according to one aspect. The microdosimeter 1700 comprises a detector cell array 1702, and may further comprise one or more processing circuits 1704, one or more memory circuits 1706, and one or more input/output (I/O) devices 1708. The detector array 1702, the processing circuit 1704, the memory circuit 1706, and the I/O devices 1708 may all communicate with one another via a bus 1709.

(77) Among other things, the processing circuit 1704 (e.g., processor) analyzes signals received from the detector array 1702 to determine the radiation levels detected by the detectors of the detector array 1702. For example, the processing circuit 1702 may be configured to generate a signal based on a plurality of currents generated by a plurality of detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n, 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n, 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n, and the signal generated is indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the microdosimeter cell array 1702 and/or the radiation dosimeter 1700. The memory circuit 1706 may include volatile and/or non-volatile memory that stores data and/or algorithms executed by the processing circuit 1704. The I/O device 1708 may include, among other things, a display that indicates the level of radiation detected by the detector array 1702.

(78) According to one aspect, the detector array 1702 includes an integer number m detector cell groupings 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m, where m is an integer greater than or equal to one (1). Each detector grouping includes an integer number n detector cells, where n is an integer greater than or equal to one (1). For example, a first detector grouping 1710 may include detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n, a second detector grouping 1712 may include detectors 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n, and a third detector grouping may include detectors 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n. The detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n, 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n, 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n may be, for example, any one of the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500, 2400, 2500, 2600 shown in FIGS. 2-4, 6, 7, 11-16, 24, 25, and/or 26. In the example of FIG. 17, there are three detector groupings explicitly shown. However, the detector array 1702 may have any number of detector groupings, and each detector grouping may consist of any number (e.g., one, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) of individual detectors.

(79) Each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may correspond to a particular cell type associated with a biological organism (e.g., a human) that is host to the various types of cell types mimicked by the detector groupings 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m. For example, the first detector grouping 1710 that includes detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n may be fabricated to mimic one type of white blood cell of the biological organism, such as neutrophil cell. The second detector grouping 1712 that includes detectors 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n may be fabricated to mimic cortical bone cells of the biological organism. The third detector grouping 1714m that includes detectors 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n may be fabricated to mimic epithelial cells of the colon of the biological organism. Of course, the detector groupings 1710, 1712, 1714m may include detectors that mimic other type of cells and/or cell components of the biological organism. Each of these detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n, 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n, 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n may be manufactured/designed to imitate properties of the biological cells and/or cell components they correspond to in order to better estimate the radiation absorbed by that particular cell or cell component type, and thus assess the general risk of bodily harm to the biological organism exposed to the radiation event. According to one aspect, the radiation measured/detected at each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may be separately tabulated and weighted by a relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor of that biological cell type. After weighting the current(s) generated by each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m according to biological cell type, the results are summed to establish the composite radiation exposure for that biological organism represented by the plurality of detector groupings 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m corresponding to the various biological cell types of the organism.

(80) As one example, each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may correspond to a particular cell component/organelle type of a biological cell. For example, the detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n may be designed to mimic a mitochondrion of a neutrophil, the detectors 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n may be designed to mimic a nucleus of a neutrophil, and the detectors 1714a, 1714b, . . . 1714n may be designed to mimic a golgi apparatus of a neutrophil. Other cell groupings may each be designed to mimic other biological cell components/organelles of the neutrophil. According to one aspect, the radiation measured/detected at each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may be separately tabulated and weighted by a relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor of that biological cell component type. After weighting the current(s) generated by each detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m according to biological cell component type, the results are summed to establish the composite radiation exposure for that biological cell represented by the plurality of detector groupings 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m corresponding to the various biological cell component types of the biological cell. Cell grouping also has significant practical benefits. For example, smaller groups have lower pulse pile-up and pickup noise, but also have lower sensitivity. Hence, one can match the group to the prevailing irradiation condition, thereby maximizing the accuracy of the measured response. Also, grouping can be used to select the desired sensitivity versus spatial resolution.

(81) FIG. 18 illustrates a table 1800 that shows exemplary relative radiation sensitivity scaling factors (RRSSF) for various biological cell types associated with a biological organism (e.g., human) according to one aspect of the disclosure. In the example shown, the RRSSF for a neutrophil cell is 0.25, cortical bone cells is 0.05, skeletal muscle is 0.06, and epithelial cells of the colon is 0.28. These values are merely examples, and in practice any value consistent with laboratory experimentation of the actual relative radiation sensitivity of cells of the biological organism based on a specific type of radiation may be used. The RRSSF values may be based on the radiation sensitivity of the one biological cell type relative to (at least) the radiation sensitivity of another biological cell type of the organism. Thus, in the example described above, neutrophil cells are assumed to be five (5) times more sensitive to radiation than cortical bone cells. According to one aspect, the radiation dosimeter's 1700 processing circuit 1704 is configured to generate a signal based on a first current generated at a first detector 1710a and a second current generated at a second detector 1712a. The signal generated may be based on the first current weighted by a first relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor and the second current weighted by a second relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor, where the first relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor is based on radiation sensitivity of the first biological cell type relative to at least radiation sensitivity of the second biological cell type, and the second relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor is based on radiation sensitivity of the second biological cell type relative to at least radiation sensitivity of the first biological cell type.

(82) FIG. 19 illustrates another table 1900 that shows exemplary relative radiation sensitivity scaling factors (RRSSF) for various biological cell component/organelle types associated with a biological cell (e.g., neutrophil cell) according to one aspect of the disclosure. In the example shown, the RRSSF for a mitochondrion is 0.10, a golgi apparatus is 0.08, a nucleus is 0.40, and a specific granule is 0.03. These values are merely examples, and in practice any value consistent with laboratory experimentation of the actual relative radiation sensitivity of the cellular components of the biological cell based on a specific type of radiation may be used. The RRSSF values may be based on the radiation sensitivity of the one biological cell component type relative to (at least) the radiation sensitivity of another biological cell component type of the biological cell. Thus, in the example described above, the cell nucleus is assumed to be five (5) times more sensitive to radiation than the golgi apparatus. According to one aspect, the radiation dosimeter's 1700 processing circuit 1704 is configured to generate a signal based on a first current generated at a first detector 1710a and a second current generated at a second detector 1712a. The signal generated may be based on the first current weighted by a first relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor and the second current weighted by a second relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor, where the first relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor is based on radiation sensitivity of the first biological cell component type relative to at least radiation sensitivity of the second biological cell component type, and the second relative radiation sensitivity scaling factor is based on radiation sensitivity of the second biological cell component type relative to at least radiation sensitivity of the first biological cell component type.

(83) Referring back to FIG. 17, according to one aspect, each detector within a detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may be sized and/or shaped to match the biological cell type or biological cell component to which it corresponds. For example, the detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n that correspond to neutrophils may have a width w and length l equal to 13.5 μm, which is approximately the diameter of a neutrophil cell (see e.g., FIG. 5). Similarly, the detector depth d can also be made to correlate with the biological cell or cell component depth. As another example, the detectors 1712a, 1712b, . . . 1712n of the second group 1712 may correspond to the nucleus of the neutrophil and may thus have a device width w, length l, and depth d that is smaller. In other aspects, the detector width w, length l, and/or depth d may be equal to the diameter of the biological cell or cell component being mimicked multiplied by an adjustment factor, for example, between 0.5 and 4.0.

(84) According to one aspect, each detector within a detector group 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m may have a semiconductor volume that is composed of a semiconductor material having LET value characteristics that match the LET value characteristics of the biological cell or cell component that detector is attempting to mimic. For example, the semiconductor volumes of the detectors 1710a, 1710b, 1710n may be composed of silicon if the detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n are mimicking skeletal muscle cells. Similarly, the semiconductor volumes of the detectors 1710a, 1710b, . . . 1710n may be composed of germanium if the detectors 1710a, 1710b, 1710n are mimicking cortical bone cells.

(85) According to another aspect, silicon may be used as the semiconductor volume regardless of the specific type of biological cell or cell component the detector is trying to mimic in order to save on manufacturing costs and complexity. In such a case, a correction factor may be applied, for example between 0.1 and 3.0 to match the LET characteristics of the silicon semiconductor volume to the biological cell or cell component material being mimicked. In most cases however, the energy deposited by high energy ions in tissue is almost always within a factor of two of that in silicon. An additional correction may also be applied for density changes between that of silicon and the specific biological cell or cell component being mimicked to keep the induced error within a factor of two.

(86) According to one aspect, a possible simplification for some microdosimeters would be to use one detector shape (e.g., a semiconductor volume having a spherical shape (i.e., first surface 302, 702, 1202, 1402, 1602 is curved) or a planar circle, oval, rectangle, etc.) and/or size (e.g., width w, length l, and/or depth d equal to about 1 μm) to mimic the various types of cell granules within a cell. Since granules are believed to be a relatively insensitive component of biological cells, some inaccuracy in approximating the actual radiation absorbed by the granules would not significantly impact an assessment of the comprehensive bodily radiation threat analysis.

(87) According to one aspect, the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 may be planar as shown in FIGS. 2-4, 6, 7, and 11-16. That is, the semiconductor volumes of these detectors have a flat, planar top surface 302, 702, 1202, 1402, 1602. According to another aspect, detectors may be formed that closely approximate the actual, non-planar shape of the biological cell or cell component they attempt to mimic. For example, the semiconductor volume of a detector may be shaped such that it resembles a red blood cell (e.g., concave or biconcave disk) or a mitochondrion (e.g., capsule shaped) of a neutrophil. As one example, three dimensional (3D) printing processes using a semiconductor (e.g., silicon, carbon, germanium, etc.) as a deposition material may be used to form the non-planar detectors having the biological cell or cell component-specific shapes, such as, but not limited to ovals, spheres, rods, triangular prisms, rectangular prisms, etc. Such detectors may have a polycrystalline semiconductor volume. However, according to some applications planar detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 may be preferred due to manufacturing ease and budgetary constraints.

(88) According to another aspect, the semiconductor material comprising the semiconductor volume of the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 may be doped with various elements (e.g., phosphorus if the semiconductor volume is n-type, or boron if the semiconductor volume is p-type) to various degrees in order to replicate the conductivity of the biological cell or cell component that the detector 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 is attempting to mimic. As discussed above, silicon may be doped to change its conductivity by over six orders of magnitude. For example, single-crystal silicon doped with phosphorus to a level of 10.sup.12/cm.sup.3 may have a resistivity of approximately 25,000 Ω-cm, which can be used to mimic the resistivity of biological cells or cell components that are as conductive as insulators (e.g., cortical bone cells). By contrast, doping the single-crystal silicon to 10.sup.19/cm.sup.3 may provide a resistivity of about 0.01 Ω-cm, which may be used to mimic biological cells or cell components that are as conductive as common conductors (e.g., biological cell or cell components that are predominantly saline). A vast majority of cells, cell components, and tissues lie within this range of conductivity.

(89) According to another aspect, the semiconductor material comprising the semiconductor volume of the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 may use a specific type of semiconductor to further approximate the radiation absorption characteristics (e.g., LET characteristics) of the biological cell or cell component that the detector 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 is attempting to mimic. For example, a high band-gap semiconductor may be used for insulating cells such as bone, and low band-gap semiconductors may be used for conducting cells such as gastro-intestinal cells.

(90) According to yet another aspect, a detector grouping 1710, 1712, . . . 1714m that mimics biological cells that are near the body's surface (e.g., cells underneath the skin) may be covered with a radiation absorption layer, such as a few millimeters of polyethylene or another hydrocarbon, in order to mimic the radiation absorption properties of skin.

(91) According to another aspect, the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500 may be encased or covered by a tissue equivalent medium to better approximate the radiation reaching the biological cell or cell component that the detector array 1702 mimics. The tissue equivalent medium generates secondary charged particles that may also be detected and measured by the semiconductor volumes of the detectors 106, 600, 1100, 1300, 1500.

(92) Thus, according to one aspect, the radiation dosimeter 1700 comprises a microdosimeter cell array 1702 including a first microdosimeter cell 1710a having a first semiconductor volume (e.g., any of the semiconductor volumes 206, 606, 1306, 1508 described above) configured to generate a first current in response to incident radiation. The first semiconductor volume may have at least one of a first size, a first shape, a first semiconductor type, and/or a first semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with a first biological cell type or a first biological cell component type. The radiation dosimeter further comprises a processing circuit 1704 communicatively coupled to the microdosimeter cell array 1702 and configured to generate a signal based on the first current, where the signal is indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the microdosimeter cell array 1702.

(93) The microdosimeter cell array 1702 may further include a second microdosimeter cell 1712a that has a second semiconductor volume (e.g., any of the semiconductor volumes 206, 606, 1306, 1508 described above) configured to generate a second current in response to the incident radiation. The second semiconductor volume may have at least one of a second size, a second shape, a second semiconductor type, and/or a second semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with a second biological cell type or a second biological cell component type, and where and at least one of (a) the first size is different than the second size, (b) the first shape is different than the second shape, (c) the first semiconductor type is different than the second semiconductor type, and/or (d) the first semiconductor doping type and concentration is different than the second semiconductor doping type and concentration. The signal generated by the processing circuit may be further based on the second current.

(94) The microdosimeter cell array 1702 may further include a third microdosimeter cell having a third semiconductor volume (e.g., any of the semiconductor volumes 206, 606, 1306, 1508 described above) configured to generate a third current in response to the incident radiation. The third semiconductor volume may have at least one of a third size, a third shape, a third semiconductor type, and/or a third semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with a third biological cell type or a third biological cell component type, and where at least one of (a) the second size is different than the third size, (b) the second shape is different than the third shape, (c) the second semiconductor type is different than the third semiconductor type, and/or (d) the second semiconductor doping type and concentration is different than the third semiconductor doping type and concentration. The signal generated by the processing circuit may be further based on the third current.

(95) According to another aspect, the radiation dosimeter 1700 comprises a first microdosimeter cell 1710a that includes a first semiconductor volume (e.g., any of the semiconductor volumes 206, 606, 1306, 1508 described above), a first cell first semiconductor region (e.g., any of the first semiconductor regions 202, 602, 1102, 1302, 1502 described above), and a first cell second semiconductor region (e.g., any of the second semiconductor regions 204, 604, 1104, 1304, 1504 described above). The first semiconductor volume may be configured to generate a first current in response to radiation incident upon the radiation dosimeter, where the first current is configured to flow between the first cell first semiconductor region and the first cell second semiconductor region. The first microdosimeter cell may include a first size, a first semiconductor type, and/or a first semiconductor doping type and concentration that is based on a first biological cell type or a first biological cell organelle type. The radiation dosimeter 1700 may further comprise a processing circuit 1704 communicatively coupled to the first microdosimeter cell 1710a and configured to generate a signal based on the first current. The signal may be indicative an amount of the radiation absorbed the radiation dosimeter. The dosimeter 1700 may further comprise a display 1710 communicatively coupled to the processing circuit and configured to display a radiation level reading based on the signal generated.

(96) The radiation dosimeter 1700 may further comprise a second microdosimeter cell 1712a including a second semiconductor volume (e.g., any of the semiconductor volumes 206, 606, 1306, 1508 described above), a second cell first semiconductor region (e.g., any of the first semiconductor regions 202, 602, 1102, 1302, 1502 described above), and a second cell second semiconductor region (e.g., any of the second semiconductor regions 204, 604, 1104, 1304, 1504 described above). The second semiconductor volume may be configured to generate a second current in response to the radiation incident upon the radiation dosimeter, and the second current is configured to flow between the second cell first semiconductor region and the second cell second semiconductor region. The second microdosimeter cell includes a second size, a second semiconductor type, and/or a second semiconductor doping type and concentration that is based on a second biological cell type or a second biological cell organelle type, and at least one of (a) the first size is different than the second size, (b) the first semiconductor type is different than the second semiconductor type, and/or (c) the first semiconductor doping type and concentration is different than the second semiconductor doping type and concentration, and wherein the signal generated by the processing circuit is further based on the second current.

(97) Exemplary Method

(98) FIG. 20 illustrates a flow chart 2000 of an exemplary method according to one aspect of the disclosure. First, a first microdosimeter cell is provided having a first semiconductor volume configured to generate a first current in response to incident radiation 2002. Next, the first semiconductor volume is formed such that the first semiconductor volume has at least one of a first size, a first shape, a first semiconductor type, and/or a first semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with a first biological cell type or a first biological cell component type 2004. Then, a processing circuit is coupled to the first microdosimeter cell, where the processing circuit is configured to generate a signal based on the first current, and the signal is indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the first microdosimeter cell 2006.

(99) According to one aspect, the method further comprises: providing a second microdosimeter cell having a second semiconductor volume configured to generate a second current in response to the incident radiation; forming the second semiconductor volume such that the second semiconductor volume has at least one of a second size, a second shape, a second semiconductor type, and/or a second semiconductor doping type and concentration that is associated with a second biological cell type or a second biological cell component type, and at least one of (a) the first size is different than the second size, (b) the first shape is different than the second shape, (c) the first semiconductor type is different than the second semiconductor type, and/or (d) the first semiconductor doping type and concentration is different than the second semiconductor doping type and concentration; and coupling the second microdosimeter cell to the processing circuit, the processing circuit further configured to generate the signal also based on the second current, the signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the first and second microdosimeter cells.

(100) Wearable Devices and Microdosimeters that Detect Radiation Harmful to the Human Eye

(101) As described above, microdosimeters may have semiconductor volumes that can be sized, shaped, doped, and include semiconductor materials that all attempt to mimic a specific biological cell or cell component. The human eye has a myriad of cell types and some of them are particularly sensitive to radiation. For example, one such cell type is the epithelial cells of the eye's lens, which as described above, are especially prone and sensitive to radiation. Any of the microdosimeters described above can include semiconductor volumes that: are sized and/or shaped to mimic one or more cells of the eye including the eye lens epithelial cells; include one or more semiconductor materials that mimics the LET characteristics of one or more cells of the eye including the eye lens epithelial cells; and/or have a doping type and/or concentration that mimics the electrical resistance of one or more cells of the eye including the eye lens epithelial cells.

(102) FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary microdosimeter cell 2400 that may be fabricated having a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structure and also an approximate size and/or shape of an eye lens epithelial cell. Since lens epithelial cell size varies naturally (e.g., 8-21 μm in lateral dimensions and around 5-10 μm in depth), a plurality of microdosimeter cells 2400 each having lateral sizes (i.e., width and/or length) ranging, for example, from 12-15 μm and a depth of 5-15 μm may be grouped together in a microdosimeter cell array (not shown in FIG. 24). As one non-limiting, non-exclusive example, an array of 5,000 microdosimeter cells replicating lens epithelial cells could be fabricated on a single integrated circuit (“chip”) that measures about 4×4 mm square. This would sample incident radiation in a lateral area comparable to the lens of an eye. In one aspect, the array could include a variety of microdosimeter cells of different sizes, shapes, electrical resistance, and/or LET characteristics that are representative of (e g, mimic) the various cell types and/or cell components found in a human eye lens or human eye. Examples of such cells include lens epithelial cells, cornea epithelial cells, lens cortex with fiber cells, etc.

(103) Referring to FIG. 25, in cases where very low radiation levels need to be detected, a “Mesa” cross-section microdosimeter can be constructed using integrated circuit technology. A microdosimeter cell 2500 having the “mesa” structure may be capable of detecting very low energy radiation that can still damage the lens epithelial cells. Like the other microdosimeters described herein, the microdosimeter cell 2500 may have a size (e.g., width w and length (perpendicular to w) that attempts to mimic the size of a human eye cell such as, but not limited to, lens epithelial cells. The microdosimeter cell 2500 may also have a semiconductor volume 2502 (intrinsic semiconductor, such as silicon) that approximates the volume of a cell of the human eye such as a lens epithelial cell.

(104) Note that using integrated circuit technology, the epithelial cells can be replicated in most dimensions, however the minor edge roughness of the human epithelial cells probably would not be copied in detail since internal sharp edges to the microdosimeter cells might cause electric field breakdowns. Notwithstanding, a microdosimeter array may contain microdosimeter cells of many different sizes and shapes and fit together very much like a group of lens epithelial cells, and therefore achieve a very clear duplication of the human lens structure. Microdosimeters that have structures (e.g., semiconductor volumes) that mimic (e.g., matching the size, shape, resistance, radiation absorption characteristics, etc.) lens epithelial cells may be herein referred to as Lens Epithelial Cell Detectors (LECD).

(105) In order to obtain maximum sensitivity, LECDs may be fabricated using Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) technology. After completion of the microdosimeter cell arrays, the removal of the SOI silicon substrate has several advantages. First, the sensitive semiconductor volume of the microdosimeter cells can be made with all of the 3D dimensions of epithelial cells. Second, the microdosimeter can be laterally backfilled with any tissue equivalent material to make the response of the device more similar to that of tissue. In addition, other materials may be added to the backfill to change the sensitivity of the microdosimeter to certain radiations (e.g., B-10, U-235 to increase the sensitivity to thermal neutrons, Cd to decrease the sensitivity to thermal neutrons).

(106) Third, by not backfilling the removed silicon substrate, the “bare” microdosimeter closely mimics the layer of epithelium cells on the surface of the eye. This is especially important for low energy radiation that is attenuated strongly within the first few millimeters of tissue.

(107) Various approaches have been used successfully to remove the silicon substrate of a SOI integrated circuit array including chemical etching, laser ablation, mechanical polishing, and plasma etching. However, attempts at removing completely the silicon substrate in SOI devices have proved mostly to be unsuccessful, as the devices tend to buckle and crack as a result of inherent or polishing-induced stresses in the chip once the silicon substrate thickness is less than about 50 μm.

(108) The below technology has applied the etching process to the complete removal of the silicon substrate in SOI devices without any attendant wafer cracking. The procedure is to cover the top and sides of the chips with the final packaging materials, and then covering these with photoresist or equivalent. The package is then placed in a XeF.sub.2 atmosphere for etching the bulk Si; the package with the hole acting as a mask. Etching proceeds in a series of steps where a fraction of the silicon is removed during each step. Since XeF.sub.2 exposure preferentially etches silicon over SiO.sub.2 by a ratio of 1000:1, the etching steps continue until all the silicon is removed, with the buried oxide of the SOI layer acting as an effective etch stop.

(109) FIG. 26 illustrates schematically an SOI microdosimeter 2600 resulting from the above process. The microdosimeter integrated circuit 2602 having the microdosimeter cell array is mounted on an integrated circuit carrier package 2604 with electrical connectors 2606. Internal connectors 2608 may be applied to connect the mounted integrated circuit 2602 to the carrier package 2604. Then a surface seal 2610, such as a tissue equivalent material, may be placed over the integrated circuit 2602. At the bottom of the mounting package 2604 is a hole 2612 to allow XeF.sub.2 gas to penetrate toward the underside of the microdosimeter integrated circuit 2602. The XeF.sub.2 etches the bottom layer of semiconductor substrate 2614, until it reaches the SiO.sub.2 layer 2616 where the etching effectively stops. The etching forms a cavity 2618 exposing the SiO2 layer 2616 and thus minimizing the amount of undesirable material separating the microdosimeter cell array located on the integrated circuit 2602 that can block or absorb incident radiation. According to one aspect, the cavity 2618 and hole 2612 may be filled (e.g., back-filled) with a tissue-equivalent material. The tissue-equivalent material filled into the cavity 2618 and hole 2612 may mimic the environment, such as an organ, that the biological cells being replicated by the microdosimeter array would ordinarily be situated in.

(110) Wearable Device Radiation Detector Having Eye Cell Mimicking Microdosimeters

(111) FIG. 27 illustrates a wearable device 2700 that detects radiation according to one aspect of the disclosure. The wearable device 2700 may be, for example, a head-mounted wearable device such as, but not limited to, eye glasses to be worn on a user's (operator's) face. The wearable device 2700 includes radiation detectors that are particularly suited at measuring and reporting radiation that may be harmful to a user's eyes.

(112) The wearable device 2700 may include a frame 2702 (e.g., eye-glass frame), which may include temples 2704, 2706, rims (eyewires) 2708, 2710, and/or a bridge 2712 coupling the rims 2708, 2710. Notably, the wearable device 2700 (e.g., the frame 2702) includes one or more radiation detectors 2714, 2715 that each include one or more of the microdosimeter arrays described herein. In the illustrated example, the radiation detectors 2714, 2715 are mounted onto one or more of the rims 2708, 2710 (e.g., front surface 2716 of the rims 2708, 2710) of the frame 2702 but in other aspects the one or more radiation detectors 2714, 2715 may be mounted on other portions of the wearable device 2700 such as, but not limited to, the temples 2704, 2706 and/or the bridge 2712. The radiation detectors 2714 and 2715 may be positioned as close to the user's eyes as possible without impeding the user's vision.

(113) The radiation detectors 2714, 2715 each include one or more microdosimeter cell arrays (e.g., array 1702 shown in FIG. 17) that include a plurality of microdosimeter cells. The microdosimeter cells are sized, shaped, and/or made with semiconductor materials and doping agents that mimic the size, shape, electrical resistance, and/or LET characteristics of one or more types of eye's cells such as, but not limited to, the eye lens epithelial cells. Thus, in one example, at least some of the microdosimeter cells in the microdosimeter array within the radiation detector(s) 2714, 2715 may have dimensions ranging in width and length of 9 μm to 17 μm and a depth of 5 to 15 μm in order to mimic the size and/or shape of lens epithelial cells. In some aspects, the lateral and/or depth dimensions of the microdosimeter cells within the radiation detectors 2714, 2715 mimicking eye lens epithelial cells may range from 4 μm to 100 μm. These microdosimeter cells may also include a semiconductor type (e.g., silicon, germanium, etc.) that mimics the LET characteristics of lens epithelial cells, and a semiconductor doping type and concentration that mimics the electrical resistance of lens epithelial cells. This allows the radiation detectors 2714, 2715 to detect and report radiation levels that may cause cataracts or other harm to the human eye.

(114) According to one aspect, the radiation detector's 2714, 2715 microdosimeter cell arrays may be manufactured on SOI substrates, such as any of the ones shown and described with respect to FIGS. 24-26. This may allow the cell arrays to detect very low-energy radiation. In one example, the microdosimeter cell arrays of the detectors 2714, 2715 may contain 5,000 to 50,000 microdosimeter cells but in other examples fewer or more microdosimeters cells may be used. These microdosimeter cells may have differing characteristics (size, shape, electrical resistance, LET characteristics) that represent the eye lens' sensitive epithelial cells which might cause cataract effects to occur.

(115) The radiation detectors 2714, 2715 may be communicatively coupled (e.g., direct electrical connection via wire) to other electronic components/devices/circuits on the wearable device 2700. For example, the wearable device 2700 may include a processing component 2718, a wireless communication interface 2720, a power source 2722, and various input and output (I/O) devices such as speakers 2724 (e.g., ear buds, bone conduction transducer, etc.), a microphone 2726, a display (not shown in FIG. 27), and/or a plurality of buttons (also not shown in FIG. 27). The processing component 2718 includes circuits (e.g., processing circuit 1704 and/or memory circuit 1706 shown in FIG. 17) that analyze the radiation levels detected by the radiation detectors 2714, 2715 (e.g., analyze the currents generated by the microdosimeter arrays 1702 within the radiation detectors 2714, 2715). The processing component 2718 may, for example, extract individual radiation detection events in the microdosimeter cells, typically with a readout of the entire microdosimeter cell array within a few microseconds. This allows sensitivity to individual events even with moderately high radiation levels.

(116) The processing component 2718 may also transmit information pertaining to radiation (“radiation information”) including radiation levels, exposure warnings, etc. to the user through the one or more output devices. For instance, the user may receive an audio warning through the ear buds 2724 that radiation levels have been detected that may be harmful to the user's eyes or a warning indicating that a system parameter of the wearable device 2700 has been changed. As another example, a display coupled to the frame 2702, such as a liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) display, may be used to show the user the aforementioned information.

(117) The processing component 2718 and/or the radiation detectors 2714, 2715 may be communicatively coupled to the wireless communication interface 2720. The wireless communication interface 2720 may include a short range (e.g., WiFi®, Bluetooth®, and other wireless local area network (WLAN) protocols) and/or a long range (e.g., wireless wide area network (WWAN), mobile cellular, etc.) wireless communication interface(s). For example, the interface 2720 may allow for communications to be transmitted and received to/from the wearable device 2700 and other electronic devices (not shown). The other electronic devices may be local or remotely located devices such as sensors, computers, servers, monitors, controllers, etc. The other electronic devices may set the wearable device's 2700 radiation detector thresholds or other parameters, and may have access to the radiation levels detected by the radiation detectors 2714, 2715. For example, the wireless communication interface 2720 may transmit the radiation information (e.g., radiation type, radiation levels, warnings, etc.) to a remote server where such data is monitored by other personnel and/or recorded.

(118) According to one aspect, the wearable device 2700 and/or one of its electronic components 2714, 2715, 2718, 2720 may include a global positioning system (GPS) module that receives location information. The processing component 2718 may then generate logs and/or tags that report radiation detection events with a location and time stamp. The power source 2722 (e.g., battery, solar cell panel, etc.) provides electrical power to the one or more electronic components 2714, 2715, 2718, 2720, 2724, 2726 of the wearable device 2700.

(119) The user of the wearable device 2700 may interact with the wearable device 2700 in a variety of ways and reasons. For example, the user may need to be informed of the device's operational status, make changes in its operation, be alerted to any radiation dangers, and communicate to remote control and surveillance stations. The I/O devices and wireless communication interface 2720 of the wearable device 2700 allow the user to do that. The microphone 2726 may receive voice commands from the user that instruct it to: report back any radiation events detects and associated radiation levels; change radiation level threshold values that set off warnings; change various parameters of the device 2700; and communicate with other electronic devices through the wireless communication interface 2720.

(120) In the example shown in FIG. 27, the wearable device 2700 includes two radiation detectors 2714, 2715. However, in other aspects the wearable device 2700 may have more or less radiation detectors communicatively coupled to one or more processing components 2718.

(121) FIG. 28 illustrates a schematic block diagram of the wearable device 2700 according to one aspect of the disclosure. The wearable device 2700 may include the radiation detector 2714, the processing component 2718, the wireless communication interface 2720, and I/O devices 2802. These modules 2714, 2718, 2720, 2802 may be communicatively couple to each other. For example, they may be communicatively coupled through a bus 2804.

(122) The processing component 2718 may include the processing circuit 1704 (e.g., one or more processors) and/or a memory circuit 1706 (e.g., one or more memory circuits) to process and/or store signals indicative of radiation received from the radiation detector 2714. The processing component 2718 may also control the I/O devices 2802, and control communications with other electronic devices through the wireless communication interface 2720.

(123) As described above, the radiation detector 2714 includes a microdosimeter array 1702 having a plurality of microdosimeter cells (any of the microdosimeters described herein). The microdosimeter cells may be sized, shaped, and/or made of semiconductor materials and doping agents that attempt to mimic the size, shape, electrical resistance, and/or LET characteristics of human eye cells or human eye cell components (e.g., nucleolus of a lens epithelial cell) so as to better approximate the radiation dose absorbed by a biological cell at issue. According to one aspect, the array 1702 includes one or more microdosimeter cells that mimic the lens epithelial cells. According to another aspect, the array 1702 also include one or more microdosimeter cells that mimic other types of eye cells.

(124) The I/O devices 2802 allow a user to interact with the wearable device 2700. It may, for example, include one or more speakers 2724 or bone conduction transducers, a microphone 2726, a display 2806 (as described above), and/or one or more buttons 2808 (as described above).

(125) It should be noted that the lens epithelial cells detector, described in this document, can be extended to other body organs with higher sensitivity to radiation than normal. For example, the thyroid gland in the human neck has been described as more than five times more sensitive to some kinds of radiation when exposed to external radiation, because it is a surface organ with little bodily absorption of radiation. A necklace or throat collar could be made, similar in design and function to the eyeglass wearable device described in detail here, in order to provide increased sensitivity to radiation by using microdosimeters (designed to mimic sensitive thyroid cells) placed in almost direct contact with the thyroid organ.

(126) According to one aspect, the wearable device 2700 can accommodate additional sensor/readout modules for other tissues and organs. For example, other radiation detectors (like detectors 2714, 2715) may be located at different parts of the body and signals from such detectors indicative of radiation levels may be transmitted to the wearable device 2700 (e.g., processing component 2718). For instance, examples include radiation detectors located at the extremities (foot and/or hand such as a ring), radiation detectors that mimic skin cells, and radiation detectors that mimic internal organs like the heart. According to another aspect, modules may be interface with the wearable device 2700 for non-ionizing radiation, such as UV, which can also cause cataracts and skin cancer. Other modules might include infrared (IR), laser light, and radiofrequency (RF).

(127) According to yet another aspect, the wearable device 2700 can be extended to accommodate a network of sensors located remotely from the operator. For example, the sensors may utilize the microdosimeters as area monitors for surveillance of occupied or unoccupied areas. User can query the wearable device 2700, “Where should I go to lower my exposure?” or “Where is the radiation source?”

(128) According to one aspect, the analysis and display system can synthesize data from multiple modules and/or sensors to guide the operator regarding actual or potential radiation exposures and their mitigation. According to another aspect, by utilizing multiple arrays the microdosimeter sensitivity can be maximized while maintaining a wide dynamic range of event rates with minimal artifacts due to event rate effects (e.g., deadtime, pulse pileup effects, chance coincidence effects). Collimators may also be used to increase the directionality of the radiation detectors' response. This would allow monoscopic, stereoscopic, or higher dimensional triangulation techniques to find and localize radiation sources, and to estimate the size of distributed radiation sources. According to yet another aspect, stacking arrays of sensors utilizes coincidence and anti-coincidence techniques to determine, for example, whether a small event was due to an incident particle having low energy versus it's trajectory just grazed the detector.

(129) FIG. 29 illustrates a method of manufacturing a wearable device featuring one or more microdosimeter cell arrays according to one aspect. The method may include first obtaining 2902 at least one of a size of a human eye lens epithelial cell, a shape of the human eye lens epithelial cell, a conductivity of the human eye lens epithelial cell, and/or a linear energy transfer (LET) value of the human eye lens epithelial cell for a first type of radiation. Next, a first microdosimeter cell array including a plurality of microdosimeter cells is formed 2904 each having a semiconductor volume adapted to generate a current in response to incident radiation, the semiconductor volumes of each of the plurality of microdosimeter cells formed to have at least one of (a) a size approximating the size of the human eye lens epithelial cell, a shape approximating the shape of the human eye lens epithelial cell, a semiconductor type having an LET value for the first type of radiation that approximates the LET value of the human eye lens epithelial cell, and/or a semiconductor doping type and concentration having a conductivity that approximates the conductivity of the human eye lens epithelial cell. Then, a processing circuit may be provided 2906 adapted to generate a signal based on the currents generated by the semiconductor volumes of the first plurality of microdosimeter cells, the signal indicative of an amount of radiation absorbed by the first microdosimeter cell array. Next, the processing circuit may be communicatively coupled 2908 to the first microdosimeter cell array. Then, a frame may be coupled 2910 to the first microdosimeter cell array, the frame adapted to be worn on face of the human user.

(130) One or more of the components, steps, features, and/or functions illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and/or 29 may be rearranged and/or combined into a single component, step, feature or function or embodied in several components, steps, or functions. Additional elements, components, steps, and/or functions may also be added without departing from the invention.

(131) Also, it is noted that the aspects of the present disclosure may be described as a process that is depicted as a flowchart, a flow diagram, a structure diagram, or a block diagram. Although a flowchart may describe the operations as a sequential process, many of the operations can be performed in parallel or concurrently. In addition, the order of the operations may be re-arranged. A process is terminated when its operations are completed. A process may correspond to a method, a function, a procedure, a subroutine, a subprogram, etc. When a process corresponds to a function, its termination corresponds to a return of the function to the calling function or the main function.

(132) The various features of the invention described herein can be implemented in different systems without departing from the invention. It should be noted that the foregoing aspects of the disclosure are merely examples and are not to be construed as limiting the invention. The description of the aspects of the present disclosure is intended to be illustrative, and not to limit the scope of the claims. As such, the present teachings can be readily applied to other types of apparatuses and many alternatives, modifications, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art.