PRECISION CONTROL OF LARGE-SCALE GREEN SYNTHESIS OF BIODEGRADABLE GOLD NANODANDELIONS AS POTENTIAL RADIOTHERANOSTICS

Abstract

The present invention relates to a new type of metabolizable flower-like gold nanodandelion (GND), which possesses features: (1) large scale green synthesis with high monodispersity and a circa 100% yield; (2) cellular/physiological degradability; (3) precision control of the shape, petal number and size; (4) highly efficient radiotheranostics encompassing better enhanced CT contrast and pronounced x-ray induced ROS generation than conventional spherical AuNP.

Claims

1. A method for fabricating a gold nanoparticle which comprising the steps of: adding a gold seed suspension and an auric acid solution to a gelatin solution to form a mixture; incubating the mixture for a incubation period; and adding a reductant to the mixture;

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the gelatin solution comprising type A gelatin.

3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the ratio of auric acid solution and gelatin solution ([auric acid](μM)/[Gelatin](mg mL.sup.−1)) is between 25 and 50.

4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the auric acid is chloroauric acid (HAuCl.sub.4).

5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the gold ion concentration of gold seed suspension is between 12.5 and 100 μM.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the incubation period is between 5 and 30 minutes.

7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the reductant is ascorbic acid.

8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the concentration of ascorbic acid is between 250 and 1000 μM.

9. A method for imaging of a subject, which comprising: administering to the subject an effective amount of the gold nanoparticle of claim 1; and irradiating the subject with a penetrating radiation.

10. The method according to claim 9, wherein the penetrating radiation is an X-ray.

11. A method for enhancing radiosensitivity of a cell population, which comprising: administering to the cell population an effective amount of the gold nanoparticle of claim 1; and irradiating the cell population with an X-ray.

12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the X-ray induces generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

13. A method for treating a cancer in a subject comprising: administering to the subject an effective amount of the gold nanoparticle of claim 1; and irradiating the subject with an X-ray.

14. The method according to claim 13, wherein the cancer is a glioma.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0025] FIG. 1 depicts the schematic diagram of synthesis and degradation of gold nanodandelion.

[0026] FIGS. 2A-2D depict the characteristics of GNDs: (A) TE micrographs of GNDs; (B) hydrodynamic size; (C) UV-Vis spectra; and (D) XRD pattern of the GNDs; FIGS. 2E-2F depict the HRTEM image of one branch of (E) GNDs and (F) AuNPs.

[0027] FIGS. 3A-3D depict the influence of gelatin and HAuCl.sub.4 co-incubating time of the as-prepared GNDs. The co-incubating time is altered from (A) 0 min, (B) 10 min, (C) 30 min, (D) 60 min. TEM imaging showing the irregular gold nanostructure (arrows) exists after co-incubating gelatin with HAuCl.sub.4 for 60 min. Scale bars are 100 nm.

[0028] FIGS. 4A-4D depict the TEM images showing the [HAuCl.sub.4]/[Gelatin] ratio: (A) 12.5:1, (B) 25:1, (C) 50:1, and (D) 100:1 affect the morphology of the GNDs; FIGS. 4E-411 depict the influence of (E) 125, (F) 250, (G) 500, and (H) 1000 μM of AA on the petal numbers of the as-prepared GNDs; FIGS. 4I-4L depict the influence of Au seed (concentration of gold ion) (I) 0, (J) 12.5 , (K) 25, and (L) 50 μM on the diameter of the as-prepared GNDs. All scale bars are 100 nm.

[0029] FIGS. 5A-5D depict the TEM for GNDs with various HAuCl.sub.4 and gelatin concentration but the [HAuCl.sub.4 (μM)]/[Gelatin (mg.Math.mL.sup.−1)] are fixed: ((A) GND.sub.S500:00; (B) GNDs.sub.250:5; (C) GNDs.sub.50.1. Scale bars are 100 nm; (D) High-yield GNDs in sub-gram scale are routinely prepared.

[0030] FIGS. 6A-6F depict the representative TEM images of intracellular uptake of (A) GNDs and (B) AuNPs in MES-SA cells. N: nucleus. C: cytoplasm; (C) Representative EDX spectrum from pretreated GNDs at 10 mM GSH concentration. Inset: TEM images of GNDs after treating with 10 mM GSH for 2 days. TEM images showed the dissociated state of GNDs (arrows) at the (D) 1st day, and (E) 3rd day in MES-SA cells; (F) The amount of internalized gold in U87-MG 3D spheroid measured by ICP-MS at each passage.

[0031] FIG. 7A depicts the CT scan images and HU values of GNDs and spherical AuNPs; FIGS. 7B-7D depict the generation of (B) .sup.1O.sub.2; C) O.sub.2.sup.− and (D) OH with GNDs and AuNPs under the X-ray irradiation.

[0032] FIG. 8A depicts concentration-dependent in vitro toxicity of GNDs after 24 h. The results show that the GNDs has no significant toxicity. FIG. 8B depicts fluorescent microscopy images showing the early and late apoptosis of C6 after treating with gelatin-GNDs. YOPRO-1 (green) and propidium iodide signals (red) denote leakage of the cell and nuclear membranes, respectively.

[0033] FIGS. 9A-9D depict the representative CT contrast (bottom) and phantom images of MMP-responsive GNDs (top).

[0034] FIGS. 10A-10B depict the radiation exposure of radio-resistant glioma U87-MG cells. (A) Representative images of γ-H2AX foci and (B) their quantification of cells has a specific foci class for cells counted per condition after exposure to 5 Gy radiation.

[0035] FIG. 11 depicts the abnormal nuclei in irradiated U87-MG cell. DAPI staining of irradiated cells displaying mitotic aberrations. The accumulative GNDs enhance the ROS generation and increase frequencies of micronuclei (yellow), multi-lobulated nuclei (white).

[0036] FIGS. 12A-12C depict the gelatinase activity analysis and in vitro cellular uptake study. (A) Zymography analysis for gelatinase activity was performed from C6 (2), U87 (3), Hela (4), and MDA-MB231 (5); (B) Quantification of gelatinase activities were done with Image J; (C) Visualization of GNDs inside malignant cancer cells.

[0037] FIGS. 13A-13B depict the GNDs radiosensitized C6 glioma cells. (A) C6 cells was treated with gelatin coated GNDs (with 10% FBS for 18 h) radiosensitization by clonogenic cell survival immediately after irradiation. (B) fluorescence microscopy images showed that accumulated GNDs enhanced the efficiency of radiotherapy and pushed cells to death mechanisms.

[0038] FIGS. 14A-14D depict GNDs increase the efficacy of sub-optimal radiation therapy. (A) mock; (B) GNDs only; (C) X-ray, no GNDs; (D) X-ray plus GNDs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0039] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by a person skilled in the art to which this invention belongs.

[0040] As used herein, the term “theranostics” refers to the systematic integration of targeted diagnostics and therapeutics. The theranostics platform includes an imaging component that “sees” the lesions followed by administration of the companion therapy agent that “treats” the same lesions.

[0041] As used herein, the term “radio-theranostics” refers to the therapy using ionizing radiation in the theranostic domain.

[0042] As used herein, the term “reactive oxygen species (ROS)” refers to the chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen. Examples include peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and singlet oxygen. ROS can damage lipid, DNA, RNA, and proteins, thus induce cell apoptosis.

[0043] As used herein, the term “biodegradable” refers to the environmentally friendly products that are biocompatibility, identified degradation mechanism and set of metabolic pathways.

[0044] The general protocol used to synthesize the GNDs is based on the reduction of HAuCl.sub.4 by AA and gelatin that act as a reductant and stabilizing agent, respectively.

[0045] As illustrated in FIG. 1, Au seeds are stabilized in the gelatin matrix to avoid aggregation during the growth process. Meanwhile, AuCl.sub.4.sup.− ions are trapped by the gelatin to form a relatively stable gelatin-Cl-—Au—Cl.sub.2.sup.− complex, which has a lower reduction potential and can postpone the growth of new gold.

[0046] Upon reduction of AuCl.sub.4.sup.− by AA, primary Au.sup.0 are obtained from complex. Subsequently, AuNP seeds act as the centers to capture free gelatin-Au-complex, leading to the formation of anisotropic multi-branched structures.

[0047] With the increase of reaction times, free gelatin-Au-complex diffuses continually toward the hierarchy and deposits further on the empty surface, finally forms thicker petals and roughened surfaces.

[0048] The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurement reveal that the flower-like morphology of GNDs exhibits a uniform size. The yield of the GNDs is approximately 100% of the particles have numerous petals, where no other shapes are found in any of the analyzed samples.

[0049] Hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (III) trihydrate (HAuCl.sub.4), trisodium citrate (Na.sub.3C.sub.6H.sub.5O.sub.7), L-ascorbic acid (C.sub.6H.sub.8O.sub.6), type A gelatin, dihyclroethidium (DHE), coumarin-3-carboxylic acid (3-CCA) and 1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran (DPBF) are purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. All chemicals are used as received without further purification.

[0050] α-phospho-H2AX (Millipore, USA) (Dilution—1:1000) and dye conjugated goat anti-mouse Cy 5.5 (GeneTex, USA) are used as secondary antibody. MES-SA (human uterine sarcoma) and U87-MG (human glioblastoma) cell lines are purchased from American Tissue Culture Collection (ATCC). MES-SA and U87-MG cells are cultured using completed McCoy's 5A (Gibco) and DMEM (Clibco), respectively, with the addition of 10% and 1% penicillin-streptomycin antibiotic as per standard. This cell line is incubated at 37° C. in a fully humidified atmosphere of 5% CO.sub.2.

EXAMPLE 1: Synthesis of Gold Seed

[0051] Au seed nanoparticles are prepared as following: 3 mL of 38.8 mM of sodium citrate is added to 50 mL of a 1 mM HAuCl.sub.4 solution, and the mixture is heated by microwave; After 90 s, the mixture acquires a red-purple color, and then the solution is stored at 4° C.; A transmission electron microscopy (TEM) examination shows that the resulting AuNPs are spherical in shape with an average diameter of 20 nm.

EXAMPLE 2: Synthesis of Gold Nanodandelions

[0052] CiNDs are obtained through a seed-mediated route. In short, 4 mL of gelatin solution (10 mg.Math.mL.sup.−1) is kept at room temperature with gentle stirring. Then, 200 μL of citrate capped gold seeds and 8 μL of 250 mM HAuCl.sub.4 are added, and this mixture is aged for 10 min. The growth of GNDs occurs by adding 100 μL of 10 mM ascorbic acid aqueous solution, and stirring is immediately stopped. At the end of the reaction, the solution acquires a purple-blue color. Finally, the GNDs are purified by centrifugation and dispersed in PBS before use (so called gelatin-PEG). For PEG-GNDs synthesis, 10 μL, of 50 mM HS-PEG.sub.2000 is added to the GNDs and kept stirring for 2 h, Finally, the PEG-GNDs are purified by centrifugation and dispersed in PBS before use.

[0053] A representative transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image in FIG. 2A shows that the flower-like morphology of GNDs exhibits a uniform size. The yield of the GNDs is estimated by analyzing hundreds of particles, and approximately 100% of the particles have numerous petals, where no other shapes are found in any of the analyzed samples. The dynamic light scattering (I)LS) measurement reveals that the hydrodynamic size of the GNDs is 73±10 nm with high monodispersity (PDI˜0.19) and narrow distribution (FIG. 2B). FIG. 2C shows typical characteristics of GNDs, e.g. a single peak at approximately 560 nm, which is in agreement with previous studies. An elemental composition analysis of GNDs using TEM-EDX showed no other elements or impurities in the spectrum, which confirms the GNDs prepared in this study are pure (FIG. 2D). The interplane distance of GNDs is 0.127 nm measured from high resolution TEM (HR-TEM), corresponding to (002) lattice planes, whereas in AuNPs, an interplanar spacing of 0.139 nm is found, corresponding to (111) lattice planes (FIG. 2E and 2F). This indicates that gelatin plays an essential role in controlling the flower-like shape and orientation of the nanoparticles.

EXAMPLE 3: The Influence of the Incubation Time

[0054] The abovementioned diagram shows that electrostatic attraction between gelatin and AuCl.sub.4.sup.− ions influence the formation of the gelatin-Cl—Au—Cl.sub.2.sup.− complex. In addition, the interaction between gold seed and the amine group of gelatin control the fabrication of nanostructure. To prove this supposition, a series of control experiments, in which the ratio of [HAuCl.sub.4]/[gelatin] is fixed, and mediated the incubation time. The irregular gold nanostructure is observed as reductant is added immediately into the reaction solution (FIG. 3A). The result clearly reveals that the initial rate of nuclei formation is faster than gelatin interacts with Au seeds that result in irregular AUNPs.

[0055] Furthermore, when the incubation time is between 10 and 30 min, the multi-petals GNDs are developed (FIG. 3B and 3C). This is due to the formation of more gelatin-Cl—Au—Cl.sub.2.sup.− complex and gelatin-capped AUNPs, which guide the subsequent growth of anisotropic structures. Otherwise, it believes that gelatin displays a weak reducing ability, therefore, after extending the incubation time for more than 1 h, a few of irregular nanoparticles has formed along with GNDs (FIG. 30).

EXAMPLE 4: The Influence of the Concentration of HAuCl.SUB.4

[0056] As mentioned above, the attraction between AuCl.sub.4.sup.- ions and gelatin could control the growth and preferential directionality of petals. Hence, the influence of [HAuCl.sub.4 (μM)]/[gelatin (mg ml.sup.−)] is explored by mediating the concentration of HAuCl.sub.4 while keeping the gelatin concentration fixed. The ratio of HAuCl.sub.4 to gelatin plays an important role in the formation of uniform flower-like GNDs. Only spherical AuNPs are obtained in the lowest ratio, 12.5 (FIG. 4A). As the proportion of gold ions increased, a direct effect on GNDs with varying morphology is observed. FIG. 4B and 4C reveal that at the higher ratios of GNDs.sub.25:1 and GNDs.sub.50:1 the nanoparticles start to show enlargement of branches. However, when the ratio increases to more than 100, the formation of GNDs with multi-petals is not observed any more. As shown in FIG. 4D, the morphology of GNTs.sub.100.1 is truncated triangular nanoplates along with some spherical AuNPs.

Example 5: The Influence of the Ratio of [HAuCl.SUB.4.]/[Gelatin]

[0057] To prove the ratio of [HAuCl.sub.4]/[gelatin] is the determining factor for varied morphology but not the concentration of gelatin or HAuCl.sub.4, as a control experiment, GNDs with varying concentrations of HAuCl.sub.4 and gelatin with their ratios fixed are synthesized GNDs.sub.500:10, GNDs.sub.250:5, and GNDs.sub.50:1. From the TEM observations, the size of GNDs.sub.50:1 is slightly smaller than GNDs.sub.250:5 and GNDs.sub.500:10 and the synthesized NPs are mainly multi-petals (see FIG. 5A-C). Rapid reduction of Au.sup.3+ to Au.sup.0 is necessary to promote the anisotropic growth of Au branches, however, it also limits the scalable synthesis of gold nanostructures with high yield and homogeneity. The characteristic of our established CiNDs benefits scale up synthesis under a minimum reaction volume. As showed in FIG. 5D, while keeping the identical growth parameters (the concentrations of 500 μM HAuCl.sub.4, 10 mg-mL.sup.−1, and 250 μM AA in 1 L reaction volume), a sub-gram scale quantity of nearly monodisperse GNDs are readily synthesized.

EXAMPLE 6: The Influence of the Concentration of Ascorbic Acid and Gold Seed

[0058] Represented in FIG. 4E-F are the examples of TEM images of GNDs in the presence of varying amounts of reductant while maintaining all other conditions constant. At very low concentrations (125 μM AA), nanoparticles of average size ˜40 nm having irregular structures are obtained. Furthermore, we have found that that GNI) petals are increasing steadily when AA concentration≥250 μM.

[0059] The influence of the seed concentration (concentration of gold ion) on the properties of the as-prepared GNDs is studied in this section. As the amount of seeds increases from 0 to 50 μM, the as-prepared NPs retain a multi-branched structure, but a clear decrease in the diameters is observed (FIG. 41-L1). As the amount of seed reached 100 μM, GNDs with a smaller size and fewer branches are observed. Obviously, the addition of fewer seeds led to a higher Au.sup.0/seed ratio, providing more Au.sup.0 to supply the growth of each GNDs. As a result, the formation of bigger GNDs is favoured.

EXAMPLE 6: The Internalization and Degradation of Gold Nanodandelions

[0060] It is commonly believed that internalized nanoparticles deliver a highly inhoinogeneous distribution of energy on the sub-cellular scale upon X-ray irradiation, thus leading to a larger extent of DNA damage, meaning that cellular distribution of nanoparticles will have a direct influence on the degree of radio-sensitization. For this reason, the internalization of GNDs is first investigated. To measure the amount of gold nanomaterials expelled by cells, three-dimensional tumor spheroids are used in this study, Brief, U87-MG cells are seeded into 2% agarose precoated 24-well plates at a density of 1×10.sup.4 cells/well. Five days later, the spheroids are exposed to 4 μg mL.sup.−1 either GNDs or AuNPs. After 24 h incubation, spheroids are rinsed with ice-cold PBS twice and the medium was replaced with fresh medium without gold nanomateirals. To eliminate the extracellular gold nanomaterials, the medium is removed every day and the spheroids were collected at 0, 3, 10, and 17 day. The experiments are conducted in triplicate. The mass of gold determined from the ICP-MS is reported in ppb of gold per sample.

[0061] Their cell uptake is observed after 24 h incubation with either GNDs or spherical AuNPs in the cell culture medium. As show in FIG. 6, most of nanostructures presented in the perinuclear region. Due to the most of low energy electrons deposit within tens of nanometers of the vicinity of a nanostructure during radiation therapy, particle localization in close proximity to the nucleus is particularly important in DNA damage.

[0062] One interesting observation from the TEM images depicts that GNDs appear monodispersed and some gold debris are found (FIG. 6A). The biodegradability of the GNDs is further investigated by subjecting them to different incubation times. As revealed from FIG. 6D, one day after cell uptake, a minority of these GNDs gradually collapse. The collapse of GNDs in cell on the 3rd days is further confirmed by TEM analysis (FIG. 6E). It is worth noting that the percentage of collapsed GNDs further increases with incubation time. This indicates that GNDs undergo metabolic degradation under physiological condition. In comparison, spherical AuNPs that cluster as larger aggregation are observed inside cells (FIG. 613). The biodegradation of GNDs is further confirmed by treating with PBS buffer with 2 mM of glutathione to mimic the physiological environment. After 48 h of incubation, the diameter of GNDs shrinks from 65 nm to approximately 50 nm, and accompanies by ultra-small nanoparticles (FIG. 6C). To investigate the composition of ultra-small nanoparticles, we have performed an EDX analysis at the site of spots. An EDX spectrum is also shown in FIG. 6C and confirms the major element is Au. Furthermore, another in vitro experiment is conducted to understand the degradation dynamics of GNDs. To exclude gold content dilution behavior from cell proliferation, 3D 1187-MG spheroid model is employed and continuously observed for up to 17 days and examined with ICP-MS analysis. It is striking to see that gold content in GNDs-incubated spheroid decreases to approximately 45% with the elongated time, indicating GNDs are successively expelled out (FIG. 6F).

EXAMPLE 7: The Potential of GNDs as a CT Contrast Agent and Radio-Sensitizer in Comparison to Spherical AuNPs

[0063] As seen in the inset of FIG. 7A, visibly brighter contrast is observed for GNDs at concentrations higher than 0.6 mg mL.sup.−1 in comparison to spherical ones. This has also been measured quantitatively in Hounsfield units, which revealed that GNDs showed greater X-ray attenuation than spherical ones, by the extent of ˜18% in the attenuation intensity (indicated by [HU.sub.GNDs-HU.sub.AuNPs]/[HU.sub.AuNPs]). This result may be attributed to the branch-shaped geometry of GNDs, which contributes to a greater surface area than the spherical counterpart of similar size.

[0064] In addition to CT contrast enhancements, the radio-sensitization properties are investigated by examining the ROS production. For the quantification of ROS, three specific species, .OH, O.sub.2..sup.−, and singlet oxygen (.sup.1O.sub.2), are chosen for their biological importance. The generation of these species is measured by three kinds of probes, DPBF (absorbance: 414 nm), DHE (emission: 585 nm), and 3-CCA (emission: 450 nm) dedicate to the quantification of integrated amounts of .sup.1O.sub.2, O.sub.2. .sup.− and .OH, respectively. GNDs are suspended with 500 μL PBS for ROS measurement. A ROS probe is premixed with GNDs and then diluted by PBS for the designed final concentration. The resulting final concentrations of DPBF, DHE and 3-CCA are 30, 25, and 50 μM, respectively. Solutions are then exposed to X-rays using a commercial cabinet X-ray system with the standard X-ray tube operated at 160 kV and 25 mA. Singlet oxygen measurements are made by following the loss of fluorescence intensity of DBPF in the aqueous GNDs solutions. In DHE measurements, the solution is excited at 465 nm and its fluorescence intensity is measured for super oxide generation. In the 3-CCA measurement, hydroxyl radical is measured by following the increase of fluorescence intensity.

[0065] For the singlet oxygen detection, FIG. 7B illustrates the photobleaching of DPBF in PBS with gold nanomaterials compares to the pristine DPBF control (nanoparticle-free) group. The steep decrease of DPBF absorption in either GND or spherical AuNP suspensions reflects the efficient generation of highly reactive .sup.1O.sub.2.

[0066] Other biologically important ROS, such as .OH and O.sub.2..sup.−, FIG. 7C and 7D illustrate the obvious change in the fluorescence intensity of DHE and 3-CCA as a function of X-ray irradiation dose. The quantitation of O.sub.2..sup.− and .OH generation appeared in the insets of FIG. 7C and 7D, which plot the ratio of the intensities (I/I.sub.0) at 585 nm of DHE and at 450 nm of 3-CCA, respectively. From these data, one can clearly observe the enhanced generation from the presence of gold nanomaterials, especially GNDs upon X-ray irradiation.

[0067] The intensities in FIG. 7B-D show significant variations, the results suggest that both nanostructures enhance ROS production. Furthermore, the radio-sensitization effect of GNDs is found superior spherical ones, especially in O.sub.2. .sup.− production. The results suggest that GNDs to enhance the generation of ROS might correlate to the satellite effect of petals and high surface areas to decrease internal absorption.

EXAMPLE 8: Concentration-Dependent in vitro Toxicity of GNOs

[0068] For biomedical applications, it is essential to evaluate the cytotoxicity of our established GNDs. To determine the cytotoxicity, cell viability is determined by MTT assay and YOPRO-1/PI staining kit. It is clearly evident from FIG. 8 that MES-SA cells treated with different concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 600 μg.Math.mL.sup.−1 of PEG-GNDs exhibited no significant cell viability after incubation for 24 h. Consistent with the MIT assay, the cell viability of C6 (rat glioma cell) is examined by YOPRO-1/PI staining, which also exhibits negligible cytotoxicity toward C6 cells.

[0069] EXAMPLE 9: Cell CT-imaging of MMP-responsive GNDs

[0070] To further study CT-imaging ability of MMP-responsive GNDs, U87 MG cells are allowed to co-incubate with either gelatin-GNDs or PEG-GNDs. FIG. 9 shows the CT images of gelatin-GNDs treated cells in the range of 18.75-300 μg.mL.sup.−1. Brighter CT images are observed with increasing gelatin-GNDs concentration. Compare with PEG-GNDs, substantially increased (3 to 4 folds) CT signal intensity is detectable in gelatin-GNDs treated cells.

EXAMPLE 10: Irreversible DNA Damage Induced by the Synergistic Effects of GNDs and X-Ray Radiation

[0071] To further evaluate the radio-sensitization effect of GNDs in vitro, radio-resistant glioma cell, U87-MG, is irradiated (5 Gy) and observed double-stranded DNA damage via γ-H2AX staining to confirm the synergistic DNA damage induced by the synergistic effects of GNDs and X-ray radiation, Phosphorylated histone H2AX is widely regarded as a molecular marker for DNA double-stranded break. Briefly, after different treatment for 24 h, cells are washed twice with PBS, fixed with 4% glutaraldehyde for 10 min, and permeabilized with 0.5 % Triton X-100. Next, cells are blocked in 5% bovine serum albumin for 1 h, and subsequently incubated overnight at 4° C. with monoclonal antihuman phospho-H2AX (S139) mouse mAb (Millipore, USA) at 1:1000 dilution in PBS (with 0.1% Triton X-100 and 5% BSA). Cells are washed with PBS and then incubated with goat anti-mouse Cy5.5 secondary antibody (GeneTex) at 1:1000 dilution in PBS (with 0.1′/i) Triton X-100 and 5% BSA) for 1 h at room temperature. Nuclei are stained blue with Hoechst 33342.

[0072] As shown in FIG. 10A, minimal or no γ-H2AX foci are observed in the untreated control and cells treated with GNDs. The only X-ray treated cells reveal a slightly higher number of γ-H2AX foci in comparison. However, it is observed that the cells receive the combination treatment displayed highly significant number of γ-H2AX foci formations (FIG. 10B). This result verifies that the intracellular enhancement of induced irreversible DNA darn age.

EXAMPLE 11: The Dysfunctional Mitosis Induced by the Synergistic Effects of GNDs and X-Ray Radiation

[0073] To further confirm these results, we also analyse changes in nucleus morphology following X-ray irradiation. As shown in FIG. 11, the formation of multi-lobulated nuclei or cells with several micronuclei, a sign of mitotic catastrophe, are observed in a dose-dependent way 4 days after X-ray irradiation. The dysfunctional mitosis is consistent with the observed a significant double-stranded DNA damage (FIG. 10), implying the accumulative and irreversible DNA damage induces a delayed type of apoptosis.

EXAMPLE 12: Enhanced GND Intracellular Accumulation of MMP Overexpressed Cancer Cells

[0074] In order to enhance the therapeutic outcome and minimize side effects to the normal tissues, nanocarriers that respond to tumor microenvironment stimuli such as pH, redox potential, and enzymes are of particular interest. Several studies about tumor development and metastasis found that matrix metalloproteases On/PO are ubiquitously overexpressed and actively involved in tumor development. Therefore, MMPs are widely used as an attractive tumor specific stimuli in targeted drug delivery. In this study, gelatin, a substrate of MMP-2/MMP-9 is used as a biodirecting agent to synthesize GNDs. Therefore, our established GNDs (so-called gelatin-GNDs) is MMP-responsive for enhance intracellular accumulation. To confirm the enhanced intracellular accumulation, MMP-2 and -9 overexpressed cancer cells such as C6, U87 MG, Hela and MDA-MB 231 are selected for zymography assay (FIG. 12). Since these cells are confirmed for MMP-2/9 overexpression, we further apply them for in vitro experiment. After 24 hr of incubation with 150 μg.Math.mL.sup.−of gelatin-CiNDs containing 10% FBS, a large number of GNDs are Observed in most of cells, especially U87 MG and Hela.

[0075] EXAMPLE 13: Radiosensitizing Effects of Gelatin-GNDs in C6 Tumor Bearing Nude Mice

[0076] To determine the efficacy of gelatin-GNDs on radiosensitization using, clonogenic cell survival assay is performed. As shown in FIG. 13, after irradiation in the presence of gelatin-GNDs, C6 cell colony reveals a significantly decreased survival compared to the groups that receive irradiation alone. To further examine the radiosensitizing effects of gelatin-GNDs in vivo, C6 tumor bearing nude mice is established as the animal model. As shown in FIG. 14, as compared with the control and other treatment groups, mice treated with gelatin-GNDs and radiation demonstrated tumor growth delay inhibiting effect from day 4 to 7 respectively.

[0077] In summary, a facile and environmentally friendly strategy that uses gelatin as a biodirecting agent is presented for high-yield synthesis of highly monodisperse GNDs. The present invention provides great advantage over other methods in terms of low cost, green synthesis, and mass production. The morphology, size and number of petals of GNDs can be changed by altering the ratio of [HAuCl.sub.4]/[gelatin], seed concentration, and reductant concentration, respectively. Some embodiments that involved ROS production reveals that the CT contrast enhancing GNDs also pronounce more ROS generation than conventional AuNPs that enables its application as second-generation radiosensitizer for potential clinical theranostics. Subsequently, GNDs undergo self-degradation to smaller sized debris, which is desirable for effective clearance from the body. Overall, all of these benefits promise a new efficient theranostic modality for in vivo animal and clinical uses.