Powder, Electrode and Battery Comprising Such a Powder

Abstract

Powder comprising particles comprising a matrix material and silicon-based domains dispersed in this matrix material, whereby the matrix material is carbon or a material that can be thermally decomposed to carbon, whereby either part of the silicon-based domains are present in the form of agglomerates of silicon-based domains whereby at least 98% of these agglomerates have a maximum size of 3 μm or less, or the silicon-based domains are not at all agglomerated into agglomerates.

Claims

1-15. (canceled)

16. A powder comprising graphite and particles comprising a matrix material and silicon-based domains dispersed in the matrix material, wherein the matrix material is a continuous phase and comprises carbon, wherein the silicon content in the silicon-based domains is 80 weight percent or more, and either part of the silicon-based domains are present in the form of agglomerates of silicon-based domains and wherein at least 98% of the agglomerates have a maximum size of 3 μm or less, or the silicon-based domains are not at all agglomerated into agglomerates, wherein the silicon-based domains do not contact the graphite, and wherein the powder has a BET value of less than 10 m.sup.2/g.

17. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the matrix material comprises pitch or thermally decomposed pitch.

18. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the matrix material comprises hard carbon.

19. The powder according to claim 16, wherein at least 98% of the agglomerates of the silicon based domains have a maximum size of 2 μm or less.

20. The powder according to claim 16, wherein all agglomerates of the silicon based domains have a maximum size of 3 μm or less.

21. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the silicon-based domains have a mass-based average diameter d50 which is less than 500 nm.

22. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the silicon-based domains are silicon-based particles.

23. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the particles of the powder contain at least 90% by weight of said silicon-based domains and said matrix material.

24. The powder according to claim 16, wherein the particles have a porosity of less than 20 volume %.

25. An electrode for an electrochemical cell comprising the powder of claim 16.

26. A battery containing the electrode of claim 25.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0033] FIG. 1 is an SEM image of a particle of a powder according to an aspect of the invention, whereby the white bar represents 5 μm.

[0034] FIG. 2 is a part of the SEM image of FIG. 1 on a larger scale, whereby the white bar represents 1 μm.

[0035] Therefore, the invention concerns a powder comprising particles comprising a matrix material and silicon-based domains dispersed in this matrix material, whereby the matrix material is carbon or a material that can be thermally decomposed to carbon, whereby either part of the silicon-based domains are present in the form of agglomerates of silicon-based domains and at least 98% of these agglomerates have a maximum size of 3 μm or less, or the silicon-based domains are not at all agglomerated into agglomerates.

[0036] In other words, the silicon based domains and the matrix material form a dispersion, so a system in which particles, in this case the silicon based domains, are dispersed in a continuous phase of a different composition or state, in this case the matrix material.

[0037] In other words either part of the silicon-based domains are present in the form of agglomerates of silicon-based domains whereby d.sub.98≤3 μm or the silicon-based domains are not at all agglomerated,

[0038] Herein d.sub.98 is the 98.sup.th percentile of the distribution of the maximum sizes of the agglomerates.

[0039] By a silicon-based domain is meant a cluster of mainly silicon atoms having a discrete boundary with the matrix. The silicon content in such a silicon-based domain is usually 80 weight % or more, and preferably 90 weight % or more.

[0040] The silicon based domains and agglomerates thereof may be observed via microscopic techniques of cross-sections of the particles of the powder. Via these microscopic techniques also the maximum size of agglomerates, if they are present, may be determined.

[0041] An agglomerate is a group of silicon based domains wherein the domains are in contact, usually single point contact, with each other.

[0042] Such an agglomerate will usually be free or nearly free from matrix material. Therefore the absence, or near absence, of matrix material in between silicon based domains positively identifies these domains as belonging to a single agglomerate. The reverse is not necessarily true: the presence of matrix material is not sufficient to determine that a group of silicon based domains is not a cluster.

[0043] For clarity it is remarked that the mentioned percentages concern the number of agglomerates with certain maximum sizes, not the weight that they represent.

[0044] If light microscopy or SEM techniques provide insufficient contrast between the silicon based domains, or agglomerates of these, and the matrix material, element mapping methods using EDX or EDS of these cross-sections may be used, whereby low signals, or no signals at all, for elements indicative of the matrix material may be used to determine the presence and size of agglomerates of silicon-based domains.

[0045] The maximum size of an agglomerate or domain is the largest measurable straight-line distance between two points on the periphery of the agglomerate or domain.

[0046] In practice, such a silicon-based domain can be either a cluster of mainly silicon atoms in a matrix made from different material or a discrete silicon particle. A plurality of such silicon particles is a silicon powder, so that the silicon-based domains can be considered to be a silicon powder.

[0047] The silicon-based domains may have a thin surface layer of silicon oxide.

[0048] The silicon-based domains may have any shape, e.g. substantially spherical but also whiskers, rods, plates, fibres and needles, etc.

[0049] For clarity it is remarked that that the silicon-based domains are nano-sized, having a mass-based average diameter d50 which is less than 500 nm and preferably less than 150 nm. It is further noted that a small size of the silicon-based domains is considered as a boundary condition, without which a good composite cannot be produced.

[0050] Moreover, the composite powder itself comprises mainly micron-sized particles. It has a specific surface area as measured by the BET technique, of less than 10 m.sup.2/g, preferably of less than 5 m.sup.2/g and more preferably of less than 2 m.sup.2/g.

[0051] The composite powder according to the invention has a better cycle performance than traditional powders. Without being bound by theory the inventors speculate that this is at least partly related to the fact that the powder according the invention will suffer less from the known negative effects of swelling and shrinkage of the silicon than traditional powders, because the silicon is better dispersed. This positive effect is surprising because also in the traditional powders which have agglomerates of silicon based domains the expectation would be that within an agglomerate there should be sufficient free space to allow expansion.

[0052] Further, such a powder according to the invention will thereby indirectly have a strongly reduced tendency for SEI formation compared to traditional powders with agglomerated silicon-based domains, and also thereby gain in electrochemical performance.

[0053] In a preferred embodiment either part of the silicon-based domains are present in the form of agglomerates of silicon-based domains and at least 98% of these agglomerates have a maximum size of 2 μm or less, and preferably 1 μm or less, or the silicon-based domains are not at all agglomerated into agglomerates.

[0054] In a further preferred embodiment, the silicon-based domains are not agglomerated at all into agglomerates with a maximum size of more than 3 μm and are preferably not agglomerated at all into agglomerates with a maximum size of more than 1 μm.

[0055] In a preferred embodiment, the silicon-based domains are either free silicon-based domains that are not completely embedded in the matrix material or are fully embedded silicon-based domains that are completely surrounded by the matrix material, whereby the percentage of free silicon-based domains is lower than or equal to 4 weight % of the total amount of Si in metallic or oxidized state in the composite powder.

[0056] The percentage of free silicon-based domains is preferably determined by placing a sample of the powder in an alkaline solution for a specified time, determining the volume of hydrogen that has evolved after the specified time, calculating the amount of silicon needed for evolving this amount of hydrogen based on a production of two moles of hydrogen for every mole of silicon reacted and dividing this by the total amount of Si in metallic or oxidised state present in the sample.

[0057] Free silicon-based domains are hereby defined as those silicon-based domains that are not or not completely shielded by the matrix material and are therefore freely accessible from outside the composite particle.

[0058] A composite powder according to this embodiment will have a strongly reduced tendency for SEI formation compared to traditional composite powders with silicon-based domains.

[0059] Without being bound by theory the inventors speculate that this is at least partly related to a lower possible contact surface between the electrolyte and the silicon based domains than in traditional powders, even though Si is usually not a significant component in SEIs.

[0060] As a consequence, the composite powder according to the invention will have a better cycle performance and will be more apt to be used with high currents.

[0061] A further advantage is that less stringent requirements can be put on the water content of the electrolyte. This so because of the following reason: water in the electrolyte can react with LiPF.sub.6 in the electrolyte to form HF. This HF can corrode the silicon, leading to a silicon loss and to the formation of Li.sub.2SiF.sub.6 which reduces the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte. To avoid this, the water content in the electrolyte is kept extremely low, often 50 ppm or less. However, expensive raw materials and/or expensive processing facilities are needed to obtain this.

[0062] With the low level of free silicon of the powder of the invention, this problem is much reduced, so that the stringent water limitation requirements of the electrolyte can be relaxed and overall cost reduced.

[0063] In a preferred embodiment the silicon-based domains are silicon-based particles, meaning that they were, before forming the composite, individually identifiable particles that existed separately from the matrix, so that they were not formed together with the matrix.

[0064] In yet another preferred embodiment the particles of the powder according to the invention contain only or nearly only said silicon based domains and said matrix material, in other words contain at least 90% by weight of said silicon based domains and said matrix material.

[0065] In yet a further embodiment the powder contains a carbonaceous material, preferably graphite, whereby the silicon-based domains are not embedded in the carbonaceous material.

[0066] In an alternative embodiment the powder of the invention only or nearly only consists of said particles so that it contains at least 95% by weight of said particles.

[0067] The invention further concerns an electrode for an electrochemical cell comprising the powder of the invention and a battery containing such an electrode.

[0068] Preferably the composite powder contains between 2 weight % and 25 weight % of silicon, and preferably between 8 weight % and 15 weight % of silicon. It preferably has an average particle diameter d50 of between 1 and 20 microns.

[0069] The invention will be further explained by the following examples and counterexamples, and illustrated by FIG. 1, which shows a SEM image of a particle of a powder according the invention, whereby the white bar represents 5 μm, and FIG. 2, which represents a part of the SEM image of FIG. 1 on a larger scale, whereby the white bar represents 1 μm

[0070] Analytical Methods Used

[0071] Determination of Free Silicon:

[0072] In order to determine the percentage of free silicon based domains of a product, 0.1 g of the product, having a known total Si content, was placed in a solution of 1.2 g/l KOH in water, at 45° C. A gas burette was used to collect and measure the volume of gas evolved over a 48 hr period, although other gas measurement methods may be envisaged.

[0073] A reference test containing only the KOH solution was also performed at same temperature. The volume of gas evolved in the reference test, presumably due to release of absorbed gasses from air, was subtracted from the volume of gas evolved from the tested product.

[0074] The volume of gas thus calculated was converted to a mass of reacted silicon based on the ideal gas law and the knowledge that the reaction of silicon with KOH will proceed according to one or both of the following reactions, which both give an equivalence of 2 moles of hydrogen per mole of silicon:

Si+KOH+5H.sub.2O.fwdarw.KH.sub.7SiO.sub.6+2H.sub.2

Si+2KOH+2H.sub.2O.fwdarw.K.sub.2H.sub.2SiO.sub.4+2H.sub.2

[0075] The percentage of free silicon-based domains was defined as the ratio of the amount of reacted silicon and the total amount of Si in the sample.

[0076] Determination of Oxygen Content

[0077] The oxygen contents of the powders in the examples and the counterexamples were determined by the following method, using a Leco TC600 oxygen-nitrogen analyzer.

[0078] A sample of the powder was put in a closed tin capsule that was put itself in a nickel basket. The basket was put in a graphite crucible and heated under helium as carrier gas to above 2000° C.

[0079] The sample thereby melts and oxygen reacts with the graphite from the crucible to CO or CO2 gas. These gases are guided into an infrared measuring cell. The observed signal is recalculated to an oxygen content.

[0080] Determination of Electrochemical Performance

[0081] All composite powders to be tested were sieved using a 45 μm sieve and mixed with carbon black, carbon fibres and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose binder in water (2.5 wt %). The ratio used was 90 weight parts composite powder/3 weight parts carbon black/2 weight parts carbon fibres and 5 weight parts carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC).

[0082] These components were mixed in a Pulverisette 7 planetary ball mill in two stages of 10 minutes at 500 rpm.

[0083] A copper foil cleaned with ethanol was used as current collector. A 125 μm thick layer of the mixed components was coated on the copper foil. The coating was dried for 45 minutes in vacuum at 50° C. A 1.27 cm.sup.2 circle was punched from the dried coated copper foil and used as an electrode in a coin cell using lithium metal as counter electrode. The electrolyte was 1M LiPF.sub.6 dissolved in EC/DEC 1/1+2% VC+10% FEC solvents. All samples were tested in a coin-cell tester with high precision (Maccor 4000 series).

[0084] The first discharge capacity and the coulombic efficiency of repeated charging and discharging cycles was determined. The coulombic efficiency of the 9th cycle is reported, as this is representative for the average between the 5.sup.th and the 100.sup.th cycle.

[0085] The skilled person will be aware that a small difference in coulombic efficiency per cycle, will have, over the hundreds or thousands of charging-discharging cycles a battery is expected last, a significant cumulative effect.

[0086] Determination of Agglomerate Size

[0087] The maximum sizes of agglomerates of silicon particles was determined by SEM imagery by measuring the largest measurable distance between two points on the periphery of an agglomerate. Silicon and pitch, either as is or decomposed, could be easily distinguished visually, so silicon agglomerates could be easily identified by the prevalence of silicon, but especially by the absence of pitch.

[0088] The same procedure was repeated for the determination of agglomerates having a maximum size of below 0.5 μm, however the SEM micrographs were taken with a higher magnification (preferably above 50.000×). To aid in the counting and size measurement image analysis software was used. To obtain reliable data at least 100 agglomerates were measured having a maximum size of at least 0.5 μm, if such agglomerates were present.

[0089] The samples were prepared according to well-known methodologies, e.g. by embedding them in resin followed by cutting and polishing to provide a smooth cross-section thereof.

Example 1

[0090] A submicron-sized silicon powder was obtained by applying a 60 kW radio frequency (RF) inductively coupled plasma (ICP), using argon as plasma gas, to which a micron-sized silicon powder precursor was injected at a rate of 220 g/h, resulting in a prevalent (i.e. in the reaction zone) temperature above 2000K. In this first process step the precursor became totally vaporized. In a second process step an argon flow was used as quench gas immediately downstream of the reaction zone in order to lower the temperature of the gas below 1600K, causing a nucleation into metallic submicron silicon powder. Finally, a passivation step was performed at a temperature of 100° C. during 5 minutes by adding 1001/h of a N.sub.2/O.sub.2 mixture containing 0.15 mole % oxygen. The gas flow rate for both the plasma and quench gas was adjusted to obtain submicron silicon powder with an average particle diameter d.sub.50 of 80 nm and a d.sub.90 of 521 nm. In the present case 2.5 Nm.sup.3/h Ar was used for the plasma and 10 Nm.sup.3/h Ar was used as quench gas.

[0091] A blend was made of 16 g of the mentioned submicron silicon powder and 32 g petroleum based pitch powder.

[0092] This was heated to 450° C. under N.sub.2, so that the pitch melted, and, after a waiting period of 60 minutes, mixed for 30 minutes under high shear by means of a Cowles dissolver-type mixer operating at 1000 rpm.

[0093] The mixture of submicron silicon in pitch thus obtained was cooled under N.sub.2 to room temperature and, once solidified, pulverized and sieved to give a powder with an average particle diameter d.sub.50 of 17.8 μm.

[0094] A SEM microscopic evaluation was performed to determine if the silicon particles in the silicon powder were agglomerated in the resulting composite powder. No agglomerates with a size of 0.5 μm or higher were found.

[0095] The oxygen content of the powder was 0.95 weight %.

[0096] A SEM micrograph is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, whereby it can be seen that the distribution of the silicon particle throughout the pitch was very homogeneous. In these pictures the white colour indicates silicon particles and the dark colour indicates pitch.

[0097] Graphite (Showa Denko SCMG-AF) was added to the as-dried silicon powder/pitch blend by dry-mixing, to obtain a silicon powder/pitch/graphite mixture with a weight ratio of 1.0:2.0:7.6, respectively.

[0098] 10 g of the obtained mixture was fired in a quartz boat in a tube furnace continuously flushed with argon and heated to 1000° C. at a heating rate of 3° C./min. The sample was kept at 1000° C. for 2 h. The heating was turned off and the sample was allowed to cool to room temperature under argon atmosphere. The sample was removed from the quartz recipient, milled for 15 min in a coffee mill, and sieved to obtain a composite powder having an average particle diameter d.sub.50 of 13.6 μm. The oxygen content of the obtained composite powder was 0.8 weight %.

[0099] A SEM analysis was done to confirm that the size of the agglomerates had not grown due to the firing step. This was confirmed: No agglomerates with a size of 0.5 μm or higher were observed. No porosity was visually observed.

[0100] The specific surface area of the composite powder measured by the BET method was 1.8 m.sup.2/g

Example 2

[0101] 500 g of a submicron-sized silicon powder, obtained as in Example 1, was mixed with 1000 g of petroleum based pitch powder.

[0102] In order to apply high shear, the blend was fed into a Haake process 11 extruder, equipped with a twin screw and heated to 400° C., with the screw running at a rotating speed of 150 rpm. The residence time in the extruder was 30 minutes.

[0103] The obtained extrudate, with silicon well dispersed in the pitch material, was cooled down to less than 50° C. The injection port of the extruder and the container in which the extrudate was collected were shielded from ambient air by flushing with N.sub.2.

[0104] A part of the obtained extrudate was pulverized in a mortar, and sieved to give a powder with an average particle diameter d.sub.50 of 15.9 μm.

[0105] A SEM microscopic evaluation was performed to determine if the silicon particles in the silicon powder were agglomerated in the resulting composite powder. No agglomerates with a size of 0.5 μm or higher were found.

[0106] The oxygen content of the powder was 0.98%.

[0107] Graphite (Showa Denko SCMG-AF) was added to the resulting silicon powder/pitch blend by dry-mixing, to obtain a silicon powder/pitch/graphite mixture with a weight ratio of 1.0:2.0:7.6, respectively.

[0108] Hereafter, the obtained mixture was fired and sieved as described in Example 1.

[0109] The average particle diameter d.sub.50 of the obtained powder was 14.1 μm and the oxygen content was 0.79%

[0110] A SEM analysis was done to confirm that the size of the agglomerates had not grown due to the firing step. This was confirmed: No agglomerates with a size of 0.5 μm or higher were observed. No porosity was visually observed.

[0111] The specific surface area of the composite powder measured by the BET method was 3.7 m.sup.2/g

Comparative Example 1

[0112] 16 g of a submicron-sized silicon powder, obtained as in Example 1, was dry-mixed with 32 g of petroleum based pitch powder.

[0113] This was heated to 450° C. under N.sub.2, so that the pitch melted, and kept at this temperature for 60 minutes. No shear was applied.

[0114] The mixture of submicron silicon in pitch thus obtained was cooled under N.sub.2 to room temperature and, once solidified, pulverized and sieved to give a composite powder with an average particle diameter d.sub.50 of 11.2 μm. The oxygen content of the powder was 1.21%

[0115] A SEM microscopic evaluation was performed to determine if the silicon particles in the silicon powder were agglomerated in the resulting composite powder. The following results were obtained, with all results in μm:

TABLE-US-00001 Maximum size d10 d50 d90 d98 d99 observed 0.7 1.8 2.9 3.6 3.8 5.0

[0116] Graphite (Showa Denko SCMG-AF) was added to the resulting silicon powder/pitch blend by dry-mixing, to obtain a silicon powder/pitch/graphite mixture with a weight ratio of 1.0:2.0:7.6, respectively.

[0117] Hereafter, the obtained mixture was fired and sieved as described in Example 1. The average particle diameter d.sub.50 of the obtained powder was 16 μm, and the oxygen content was 0.9%

[0118] The SEM microscopic evaluation of the silicon particles and agglomerates was repeated on the fired product. The following results were obtained, with all results in μm, showing that significant agglomeration of the silicon nanoparticles had occurred:

TABLE-US-00002 Maximum size d10 d50 d90 d98 d99 observed 0.5 1.7 2.9 3.7 3.9 5.0

[0119] As can be seen the results are similar to the results on the unfired product.

[0120] SEM images showed porosity, especially between the silicon particles making up an agglomerate of silicon particles.

[0121] The specific surface area measured by the BET method was 8.7 m.sup.2/g

Comparative Example 2

[0122] 16 g of a submicron-sized silicon powder, obtained as in Example 1, was mixed with 32 g of petroleum based pitch powder.

[0123] Graphite (Showa Denko SCMG-AF) was added to the silicon powder/pitch blend by dry-mixing, to obtain a silicon powder/pitch/graphite mixture with a weight ratio of 1.0:2.0:7.6, respectively. No melting step was applied.

[0124] Hereafter, the obtained mixture was fired and sieved as described in Example 1. The average particle diameter d.sub.50 of the obtained powder was 14.3 μm, and the oxygen content was 0.9%

[0125] The SEM microscopic evaluation of the silicon particles and agglomerates was repeated on the fired product. The following results were obtained, with all results in μm, showing that significant agglomeration of the silicon nanoparticles had occurred:

TABLE-US-00003 Maximum size d10 d50 d90 d98 d99 observed 1.3 2.3 3.3 3.9 4.1 5.5

[0126] SEM images showed porosity, especially between the silicon particles making up an agglomerate of silicon particles, but also at the interfaces between the graphite and decomposed pitch.

[0127] The specific surface area of the composite powder measured by the BET method was 5.6 m.sup.2/g

[0128] The electrochemical performance and free silicon level were determined on all products after firing, and is reported in table 1. The total silicon level of all these products was measured to be 10%+/−0.5%.

TABLE-US-00004 d98 of silicon d98 of silicon 1.sup.st Coulombic agglomerates agglomerates discharge efficiency (μm) (μm) Free capacity at cycle 9 Product before firing after firing silicon (mAh/g) (%) Example 1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.3% 645 99.46 Example 2 <0.5 <0.5 <0.3% 646 99.51 Comparative 3.6 3.7   0.9% 610 99.32 example 1 Comparative 4.2   4.9% 590 99.15 example 2

[0129] It should be noted that in the particular measurement conditions 0.3% free silicon was the detection limit. This detection limit can be reduced by the skilled person by increasing the sample size and/or by reducing the measurement limit of the evolved gas.

[0130] As can be observed, the electrochemical performance of a powder is best only if both conditions are met: the absence of observable agglomerates of silicon particles and a low level of free silicon.