LOW TEMPERATURE FORMATION OF PEROVSKITE FILMS IN SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS

Abstract

Crystallization of perovskite films was performed in supercritical carbon dioxide with and without organic co-solvents. Post deposition crystallization of the films was performed in a binary, single phase supercritical fluid at constant conditions (45° C., 1200 psi) but with varying organic co-solvent volume fractions up to 2%. The co-solvents can provide selective interactions with one or both of the perovskite precursor compounds resulting in different film morphologies ranging from uniform films containing large grains to films exhibiting large cubic or hexagonal crystals or preferential crystallographic orientations. The use of supercritical fluids to enhance or tune crystallization in solid-state thin films could have broad applications toward the realization of high efficiency photovoltaic devices.

Claims

1. A method to produce perovskite films of the following formula: AMX.sub.3 comprising, depositing inorganic-organic or all inorganic precursors onto a substrate, wherein said depositing step produces a film of a perovskite precursor solution, exposing the film of the perovskite precursors to a supercritical fluid at a temperature less than 50° C., and inducing crystallization of perovskite crystals in the film of the perovskite precursor so as to produce a film with perovskite crystals, wherein, A is an organic cationic ammonium compound or an inorganic cation M is at least one divalent metal; and X is halide selected from the group consisting F, Cl, Br or I.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the organic cationic ammonium is selected from the group consisting of methylammonium, tetramethylammonium, formamidinium and guanidinium.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the inorganic cation is selected from the group Cs.sup.+, Na.sup.+ and K.sup.+.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the supercritical fluid exposure step is conducted at temperature in the range of from 10° C. to 50° C.

5. The method of claim 1 where the pressure of the supercritical fluid is in the range of 1100 Psi to 2000 Psi.

6. The method of claim 1 where substrates coated with a perovskite precursor film are placed within a pressure vessel and exposed to a supercritical fluid.

7. The method of claim 1 where the substrate consists of a glass or other optically transparent material coated with one or more layers of a thin film photovoltaic device.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein the supercritical fluid is selected from the group consisting of CO.sub.2, methane, ethylene, propane, and propylene, alone or in combination with a co-solvent.

9. The method of claim 8 wherein the exposure step is conducted with a co-solvent selected from a group consisting of benzene, toluene, dichloromethane, hexane, xylene, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethanol, isopropanol, methanol or ethylene glycol.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein the supercritical fluid is CO.sub.2.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposure step is conducted with supercritical CO.sub.2 combined with a co-solvent.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the exposure step is conducted with a co-solvent selected from a group consisting of benzene, toluene, dichloromethane, hexane, xylene, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethanol, isopropanol, methanol or ethylene glycol.

13. The method of claim 11, wherein the exposure step is conducted in the co-solvent at a v/v % concentration in the range of 0.1 to 2.0%.

14. The method of claim 8, wherein the co-solvent is an organic solvent.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein the perovskite films have the formula CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbX.sub.3, wherein, X is a halide selected from the group consisting of F, Cl, Br or I.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the perovskite films have the formula CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein the perovskite crystals possess an average grain size ranging from 200 to 1000 mm.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the perovskite crystals possess an average grain size of 200 nm, 250 nm, 400 nm, or 600 nm.

19. A photovoltaic device which incorporates the material of claim 1.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0014] The aforementioned and other aspects, features, and advantages of the present disclosures will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, and associated claims.

[0015] FIG. 1: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of toluene as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) toluene, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) toluene, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) toluene, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) toluene, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V) toluene, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) toluene.

[0016] FIG. 2: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of benzene as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) benzene, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) benzene, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) benzene, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) benzene, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V) benzene, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) benzene.

[0017] FIGS. 3A and 3B: Graphs showing average grain size of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 after treatment with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of toluene (FIG. 3A) and benzene (FIG. 3B).

[0018] FIG. 4A Xray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of toluene.

[0019] FIG. 4B optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0020] FIG. 5A XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of benzene.

[0021] FIG. 5B optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0022] FIG. 6: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of tetrahydrofuran as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) tetrahydrofuran.

[0023] FIG. 7: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of acetone as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) acetone, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) acetone, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) acetone, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) acetone, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V acetone, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) acetone.

[0024] FIGS. 8A and 8B Graphs showing the average grain size of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 after treatment with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of tetrahydrofuran (FIG. 8A) and acetone (FIG. 8B).

[0025] FIG. 9A: XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of tetrahydrofuran.

[0026] FIG. 9B Optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0027] FIG. 10A XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of acetone.

[0028] FIG. 10B Optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0029] FIG. 11: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of ethanol as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) ethanol, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) ethanol, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) ethanol, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) ethanol, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V ethanol, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) ethanol.

[0030] FIG. 12: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of methanol as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) methanol, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) methanol, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) methanol, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) methanol, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V methanol, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) ethanol.

[0031] FIG. 13: SEM images (panels A-G) of the top surfaces of the perovskite film processed in pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of ethylene glycol as a co-solvent; A—Pure scCO.sub.2, B—scCO.sub.2+0.2% (V/V) ethylene glycol, C—scCO.sub.2+0.4% (V/V) ethylene glycol, D—scCO.sub.2+0.8% (V/V) ethylene glycol, E—scCO.sub.2+1.2% (V/V) ethylene glycol, F—scCO.sub.2+1.6% (V/V ethylene glycol, and G—scCO.sub.2+2.0% (V/V) ethylene glycol.

[0032] FIG. 14A-C: Graphs showing the average grain size of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 after treatment with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V %) of ethanol (FIG. 14A), methanol (FIG. 14B), and ethylene glycol (FIG. 14C).

[0033] FIG. 15A: XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of ethanol.

[0034] FIG. 15B Optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0035] FIG. 16A: XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of methanol.

[0036] FIG. 16B Optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

[0037] FIG. 17A: XRD patterns of the perovskite thin film with pure scCO.sub.2 and different (V/V) % of ethylene glycol.

[0038] FIG. 17B Optical absorption spectra of the thin film at different treatment conditions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0039] The present disclosure provides methods of making perovskites films, and products made from the perovskite films.

[0040] In one aspect, the invention is directed to methods for producing a crystalline film having a halide perovskite composition. The term “crystalline”, as used herein, generally refers to a polycrystalline structure, although a single-crystal structure may also be employed. As well known in the art, a polycrystalline material possesses crystal grains, which can be characterized as having an average grain size. Particularly in the case of photovoltaic and other photoactive materials, a larger grain size is desirable since it generally provides improved photoelectric or photocatalytic properties. In different embodiments, the process described herein produces a perovskite film having an average grain size of about, at least, or above 200 nm to 1000 nm, such as 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950 or 1000 nm or an average grain size within a range bounded by any two of the foregoing exemplary values. The term “about,” as used herein, generally indicates a deviation of no more than 10%, 5%, or 1% from a given value. Thus, the term “about 200 nm” may indicate, within its broadest interpretation, a value in the range of 190-210 nm.

[0041] The crystalline film described herein has a halide perovskite composition according to the following formula: AMX.sub.3, wherein A is typically an organic cationic organic compound selected from the group consisting of methylammonium (CH.sub.3NH.sub.3.sup.+), tetramethylammonium ((CH.sub.3).sub.4N.sup.+), formamidinium (H.sub.2N═CH—NH.sub.2.sup.+), and guanidinium (H.sub.2N═C—(NH.sub.2).sub.2.sup.+) organic cations. In some embodiments, the cation could consist of an inorganic cation such as but not limited to N.sup.+, K.sup.+ or Cs.sup.+. The variable M is at least a divalent. The divalent metal (M) can be, for example, one or more divalent elements from Group 14 of the Periodic Table (e.g., divalent lead, tin, or germanium), one or more divalent transition metal elements from Groups 3-12 of the Periodic Table (e.g., divalent titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, palladium, platinum, and cadmium), and/or one or more divalent alkaline earth elements (e.g., divalent magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium). The variable X is a halide selected from the group consisting of fluoride (F.sup.−), chloride (Cl.sup.−), bromide (Br.sup.−), or iodide (I.sup.−).

[0042] In some embodiments, the perovskite films have the formula: CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbX.sub.3, wherein X is a halide selected from the group consisting of fluorine (F.sup.−), chlorine (Cl.sup.−), bromine (Br.sup.−) and iodine (I.sup.−).

[0043] In further embodiment, the perovskite films have the formula: CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3.

[0044] In some aspects the process disclosed herein to produce the perovskite films include i) depositing inorganic-organic or all inorganic precursors unto a substrate, where said depositing step produces a film of a perovskite precursor solution, ii) exposing the film of the perovskite precursors to a supercritical fluid at a temperature of less than or equal to 50° C. (e.g., 25° C., 30° C., 35° C., 40° C., 45° C., 50° C.), and iii) inducing crystallization of perovskites precursor solution so as to produce a film with perovskite crystals.

[0045] In some embodiments, the perovskite precursors are crystallized on the substrate in the presence of scCO.sub.2. The scCO.sub.2 does not dissolve the perovskite precursors, but acts as a mobilizer to significantly enhance the film crystallization rate. Virtually any kind of substrate may be used (e.g., glass, ceramic, metal, plastic, etc.). In addition, other supercritical fluids may be used (e.g., methane, ethylene, propane, propylene, etc.). For example, the perovskite precursors would be crystallized on the substrate in the presence of scmethane, scethylene, scpropane, or scpropylene.

[0046] In another embodiment, the crystallization step is performed in the presence of a supercritical fluid (e.g., scCO.sub.2) at a low temperature such as a temperature less than or equal to 50° C. In the presence of scCO.sub.2 high quality perovskite film could be produced rapidly and with annealing temperature lower than 50° C. Without the scCO.sub.2, much high annealing temperature, such as greater than 80° C. and longer annealing time is required to produce high quality films.

[0047] CO.sub.2 when pressurized and heated above its critical point is a single-phase supercritical fluid with tunable liquid-like density[27]. The primary advantage of the supercritical fluid for use in solid-state film crystallization is that it has no surface tension and during removal of the scCO.sub.2 by depressurization, it enters the gas phase without crossing a phase boundary, thus eliminating detrimental solvent residue effects, which make liquid solvents problematic. CO.sub.2 is also non-toxic, inexpensive, abundant, non-flammable, and recyclable with high permeability enabling faster mass transfer rates to penetrate highly permeable nanostructures and thin films[28]. CO.sub.2 is the most popular supercritical fluid due to its moderate critical temperature and pressure and can act as a solvent, anti-solvent, solute and reaction medium for materials processing. It is a non-polar solvent with large quadrupole moment and a polar C═O bond which makes some materials soluble [29]. Supercritical methane, ethylene, propane, and propylene have similar properties.

[0048] The term anti-solvent is typically used in solution crystallization to refer to a second solvent, which when added to the first solvent reduces the solubility of the solute. Herein, anti-solvent refers a solvent in which the product is insoluble. The scCO.sub.2 anti-solvent does not dissolve the perovskite precursors but accelerates the solid-state reaction kinetics to enhance crystallization. This process enables complete perovskite conversion with an average crystal grain size of 408 nm at 45° C. with scCO.sub.2 treatment compared to incomplete crystal formation with average grain size of 175 nm at 45° C. with thermal annealing alone. Additional grain growth was observed with an increase in scCO.sub.2 treatment time and temperature. The scCO.sub.2 post-treatment process disclosed herein, will be useful for large-scale production of high quality perovskite layers.

[0049] In some embodiment, the post treatment crystallization of perovskite films using supercritical CO.sub.2, increases the crystallinity and average grain size of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 films. In this case scCO.sub.2 acts as an anti-solvent for perovskite films.

[0050] In some embodiment, the crystallization step is conducted in a supercritical fluid (e.g., supercritical CO.sub.2) combined with a co-solvent. The co-solvent is chosen from a group of organic solvent consisting of benzene, toluene, dichloromethane, hexane, xylene, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethanol, isopropanol, methanol or ethylene glycol. The v/v % concentration of the co-solvent is in the range 0.1 to 2.0% such as, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 or 2.0%. The use of the co-solvent in conjunction with the scCO.sub.2 enhances the overall molecular transport within the film. The co-solvent can preferentially interact with specific film components to selectively mobilize or extract one component within a solid film. This affords the advantage to selectively adjust the average grain size, the film morphology and the absorption spectra. Therefore, the use of a combination of the scCO.sub.2 and a co-solvent in the production process of perovskite films allows to enhance or fine tune the morphology, crystal structure, optical and electrical properties of a wide range of thin films depending on the hydrogen-bonding properties of the solvent.

[0051] Effect of Poorly Hydrogen-Bonded Co-Solvents Such as Toluene and Benzene

[0052] Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) measurements were performed to characterize the CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 film surface morphology after annealing in scCO.sub.2+Toluene at different volume ratios. FIG. 1A shows the morphology of a film annealed in pure scCO.sub.2 without any co-solvent and resulted in uniform and high-quality films as reported previously [27]. FIG. 1B-G shows the morphology of films annealed in scCO.sub.2 with the toluene co-solvent at various volume fractions. The addition of toluene, which does not dissolve either PbI.sub.2 or CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I, produces measurable changes to the resulting film morphology and average grain size. FIG. 2 presents SEM images of the CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 films after annealing with scCO.sub.2 (A) and scCO.sub.2+Benzene (B-G). The addition of different percent volume/volume ratio of benzene resulted in more subtle morphology changes as shown in FIG. 2B-G.

[0053] The grain size distribution of the films annealed in pure scCO.sub.2 and scCO.sub.2+Toluene and Benzene were obtained and are shown in FIGS. 2A and B. The average grain size for pure scCO.sub.2 was about 400 nm. The average grain size of films annealed in scCO.sub.2+Toluene from 0.2-0.8 (V/V %) is comparable to that of pure scCO.sub.2. However, the average grain size increases dramatically from around 400 nm to about 750 nm at 1.6 (V/V %) and quickly drops down to about 400 nm at 2.0 (V/V %).

[0054] The effect of the co-solvents on the film crystallinity was studied using XRD. FIGS. 4A and 5A shows that the relative intensity of the diffraction peaks from the different planes did not change, implying that the crystal orientation of the scCO.sub.2+Toluene and scCO.sub.2+Benzene annealed films did not change during annealing. Complete crystallization was observed for all samples with no visible PbI.sub.2 peak. The diffraction peaks at 14.4°, 24.8°, 28.7°, and 32.2°, correspond to the (110), (202), (220), and (310) planes of crystalline CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3, respectively with a tetragonal crystal structure [21] [45] [46] [47].

[0055] FIGS. 4B and 5B presents the optical absorption spectra for the toluene and benzene co-solvents respectively in comparison to pure scCO.sub.2. The overall shape of the absorption spectra for both co-solvents was similar to pure CO.sub.2. All of the films treated with the benzene co-solvent exhibited stronger optical absorption at all wavelengths in comparison to pure scCO.sub.2, which usually indicates better film quality. However, the absorption spectra of the films treated in the toluene co-solvent exhibited a strong and somewhat random deviation from the pure scCO.sub.2 film, particularly at the shorter wavelengths. Surprisingly, the 1.6% (v/v) toluene film with the largest grain size exhibited lower optical absorption than pure scCO.sub.2 at shorter wavelengths.

[0056] Effect of Moderately Hydrogen-Bonded Co-Solvents Such as Tetrahydrofuran and Acetone

[0057] FIGS. 6 and 7 presents SEM images of the top surfaces of the perovskite films after annealing in scCO.sub.2+THF and scCO.sub.2+Acetone. It has been reported that as the concentration of PbI.sub.2 in the perovskite film is reduced, the quality of the morphology is compromised leading to a porous film [48]. From FIGS. 6A and 7A we see a smooth and compact morphology with annealing in pure scCO.sub.2. However, with the addition of THF and acetone FIG. 6B-G and FIG. 7B-G, the morphology of the film is dramatically altered, with an increasing number of pinhole defects correlated with an increase in the percent volume of the co-solvent. This is most likely due to the selective interaction of these co-solvents with PbI.sub.2. The THF morphology appears to be less defective with increasing co-solvent volume than that of acetone possibly due to the lower solubility parameter of the former resulting in a weaker interaction with PbI.sub.2

[0058] The grain size distribution of the films were obtained for pure scCO.sub.2 and scCO.sub.2+THF and acetone as shown in FIGS. 8A and B. With the addition of THF and Acetone, the average crystal size is slightly lower than that of pure scCO.sub.2 films. This could be due to a disturbance of the interdiffusion of PbI.sub.2 into CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I because of solubility interactions of the PbI.sub.2 with the co-solvents. The film annealed in 2% (v/v) acetone showed a larger average grain size, but inspection of the SEM image of that film (FIG. 7G) shows the emergence of very large grains that appear to be crystalline, but the overall film quality is poor.

[0059] The effect of the co-solvents on the film crystallinity was studied using XRD. FIGS. 9A and 10A, show that, while all of the films exhibit peaks corresponding to the tetragonal perovskite crystal structure, the relative intensity of the diffraction peaks changed depending on the co-solvent concentration. The THF films processed at co-solvent volume fractions of 0.4% and 0.8% exhibited a stronger (202) peak in comparison to the normally dominant (110) peak. For the films processed in acetone, the (202) peak is enhanced when processing at a co-solvent volume fraction of 1.6%. This implies that the preferred crystallographic orientation of the scCO.sub.2+THF and scCO.sub.2+acetone processed films can be influenced by the co-solvent volume fraction. The preferred reorientation in the perovskite film could be related to the nucleation dynamics and lattice distortion during crystal formation [49][50][51]. But the unsystematic reorientation to the (202) plane at specific co-solvent volume fractions is not understood at this time.

[0060] FIGS. 9B and 10B presents the evolution of the optical absorption spectra. From this, we notice a similar overall shape of the scCO.sub.2+THF and scCO.sub.2+acetone annealed films to that of pure scCO.sub.2. In FIG. 9B, for THF concentrations above 0.4% a noticeable red shift in the short wavelength shoulder of the absorption spectra is seen. For pure scCO.sub.2, the shoulder in the absorption spectra is at approximately 475 nm, but increases to about 510 nm when processed in THF at concentrations above 0.4%. From the SEM images of FIG. 6, it can be seen that the films processed at higher THF concentrations (FIG. 6E,F,G) have a distinctly different morphology than that of the films processed in pure CO.sub.2. While the bandgap shoulder at around 780 nm is the same for all films, the shoulder in the absorption spectra near 500 nm is due to changes in higher energy interband transitions. The ability to use post processing in supercritical fluids to shift the absorption spectra in perovskite films could be useful in photovoltaic devices. Although the film morphology was not smooth with increasing volume percent of co-solvents, the absorption increased relative to that of pure scCO.sub.2. This may also be attributed to scattering which is not accounted for.

[0061] Effect of Strongly Hydrogen-Bonded Co-Solvents Such as Ethanol, Methanol and Ethylene Glycol.

[0062] FIGS. 11, 12 and 13 presents SEM images of the top surfaces of the perovskite thin films after annealing with scCO.sub.2+ethanol, scCO.sub.2+methanol and scCO.sub.2+ethylene glycol respectively. The CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I precursor is soluble in each of these co-solvents and it has been shown that as the concentration of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I is reduced, CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 cuboids begin to form [52]. The size of the cuboids increases with decreasing concentration of CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I with average dimension exceeding 1 μm. From FIGS. 11A, 12A and 13A we see a smooth and compact morphology with annealing in pure scCO.sub.2. However, with the addition of ethanol (FIG. 11B-G), methanol (FIG. 12B-G) and ethylene glycol (FIG. 13B-G), we see diverse and noticeable changes in film morphology, ranging from smooth, compact and homogeneous grains to cuboids, hexagonal grains and large shapeless grains due to the strong hydrogen bonding interaction.

[0063] The formation of the cuboids (FIGS. 11G and 12G) is likely due to the selective interactions of these co-solvents with CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I since it is soluble in them. PbI.sub.2 is not soluble in ethanol and methanol and this could account for the smoothness of these films at low volume percent. However, as the volume percent increases, large micron-size rounded or cubic shapes emerge. Ethylene glycol is a weak solvent for PbI.sub.2 and a solvent for CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I leading to a combined effect with solubility interactions with both precursors. It can be noted that as the solubility parameter of these strongly hydrogen bonded solvents increases (ethanol to methanol to ethylene glycol) the interactions with the film constituents increases leading to more dramatic changes in film morphology.

[0064] The grain size distribution of the films were obtained for pure scCO.sub.2 processing and scCO.sub.2+ethanol, scCO.sub.2+methanol and scCO.sub.2+ethylene glycol as shown in FIGS. 14A, B and C. With the addition of ethanol, the average crystal size is slightly lower than that of pure scCO.sub.2 films and jumps back up when the cuboids begin to form. When methanol and ethylene glycol are added, the average grain size increases but becomes highly non-uniform and riddled with defects.

[0065] FIGS. 15A, 16A and 17A, shows that the relative intensity of the X-ray diffraction peaks of scCO.sub.2+ethanol, scCO.sub.2+methanol and scCO.sub.2+ethylene annealed films respectively. With ethanol, we notice that the overall crystal structure is not compromised until at 2% (V/V) the peak associated with PbI.sub.2 becomes visible. With methanol, all of samples present the same diffraction peaks corresponding to planes of crystalline CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3. Two significant peaks located at 12.6° and 38.2° corresponding to the diffraction from (001) and (110) lattice planes of PbI.sub.2 hexagonal polytype, respectively appear [53]. It has been indicated that residual PbI.sub.2 can bring about a passivation effect in PSCs to improve photovoltaic performance [54]. Nevertheless, in general excess of PbI.sub.2 has a negative impact and impedes carrier transport. With ethylene glycol, tetragonal crystal structure is seen up to 0.8% (V/V) ratio in scCO.sub.2. Once the volume of ethylene glycol exceeds this point, we notice that the dominant peak shifts from (110) to the (224) plane possibly due to CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I assisted reorientation of PbI.sub.2 peak of (001) [55]

[0066] FIGS. 15B, 16B and 17B presents the evolution of the optical absorption spectra of scCO.sub.2+ethanol, scCO.sub.2+methanol and scCO.sub.2+ethylene glycol processed films respectively. The overall shape of the optical absorption spectra for the ethanol co-solvent is similar to that of pure scCO.sub.2 but does not follow a trend with increasing or decreasing co-solvent volume percent. Interestingly, for the films processed in both the methanol and ethylene glycol co-solvents, the films become optically transparent above a certain co-solvent volume percent. The XRD patterns for these films still show the perovskite crystal structure, but the absorption spectra show optical transparency at all wavelengths and no discernible band edge.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Materials and Precursor Preparation

[0067] Bone Dry 3.0 Grade Carbon Dioxide with siphon was purchased from Airgas. Precursor solution CH.sub.3NH.sub.3PbI.sub.3 was synthesized by mixing a 1:1:1 molar ratio of 2.385 g of methyl ammonium iodide (CH.sub.3NH.sub.3I), 6.915 g of lead (II) iodide (PbI.sub.2) and 1.063 mL of anhydrous dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in 9.484 mL of anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide and 0.3 mL of anhydrous diethyl ether. The solution was processed in an argon-filled glovebox, stirred at room temperature for 1 hr and filtered with 0.2 μm syringe filter. Anhydrous Ethylene glycol, methanol, tetrahydrofuran, benzene, ethanol, acetone and toluene were used as co-solvent with scCO.sub.2.

Example 2: MAPbI.SUB.3 .Perovskite Thin Film Fabrication

[0068] Fluorine doped tin-oxide (FTO) substrates (12-14Ω, 25 mm×25 mm×2.2 mm, Ossila Limited) were cleansed with detergent, de-ionized water, acetone and isopropyl alcohol. The precursor solution was spin coated onto the FTO glass slide at 6000 rpm for 25 sec. During the spin coating procedure, 0.5 mL of diethyl ether was dripped onto the rotating surface for 6 s to remove DMF[43].

[0069] The thin film was then placed into a pressure vessel (Parr Instrument Pressure Reactor 4768) and different (V/V %) of co-solvent was added (0.2%, 0.4%, 0.8%, 1.2%, 1.6%, 2.0%). A syringe pump (Teledyne ISCO Pump 260D) was used to pressurize the CO.sub.2 and co-solvent for crystallization. This experiment was carried out at 45° C. and 8.27 MPa (1200 psi) and a processing time of 15 minutes for each film. To avoid precipitation of the co-solvents during depressurization, the chamber was exhausted while replenishing with pure CO.sub.2 at 8.27 MPa until the co-solvent was sufficiently diluted. Post treatment in pure scCO.sub.2 was used as a control for comparison and baseline.

Example 3: Film Characterization

[0070] The crystallographic properties of the resulting perovskite films were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements (PANalytical MPD X′pert Pro), using a Cu Kα (λ=1.54 nm) radiation source that operated at 45 kV and 40 mA. The X-ray diffractograms were obtained at a scan rate of 0.01° s.sup.−1 for 20 values between 10° and 60°. The surface coverage and grain size were obtained using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Hitachi SU-70 FE-SEM) at 20 kV, and analyzed using ImageJ software package. Optical spectrometry (transmission, reflection, absorption) of the films was conducted using a spectral response measurement system (PerkinElmer Lambda 35 UV/VIS Spectrometer)

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