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Electrolytes for Low Temperature Applications

20220140398 · 2022-05-05

    Inventors

    Cpc classification

    International classification

    Abstract

    The present disclosure describes an electrolyte for an electrochemical cell comprising Solvent A selected from cyclic carbonates, Solvent Group B comprising at least four solvents, each organic solvent having a Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) level between about −9 eV to about −7 eV, and an energy band gap of at least about 5 eV between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO). Also provided herein is an electrochemical cell comprising the electrolyte disclosed herein.

    Claims

    1. An electrolyte for an electrochemical cell comprising: Solvent A selected from cyclic carbonate; and Solvent Group B comprising at least four organic solvents, each organic solvent having a Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) level between about −9 eV to about −7 eV, and an energy band gap of at least about 5 eV between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO).

    2. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent Group B comprises four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine organic solvents.

    3. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the LUMO level of the organic solvents in Solvent Group B is between about 0 eV to about 1.5 eV.

    4. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent A is selected from the group consisting of ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, and vinylethylene carbonate.

    5. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises about 5 vol % to about 20 vol % Solvent A.

    6. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent Group B comprises organic solvents selected from the group consisting of cyclic or linear carbonates, halogenated cyclic or linear carbonates, cyclic or linear acid esters, halogenated cyclic or linear acid esters, cyclic or linear acid amides, halogenated cyclic or linear acid amides, cyclic or linear ethers, halogenated cyclic or linear ethers, cyclic or linear esters, halogenated cyclic or linear esters, cyclic or linear carbamates, halogenated cyclic or linear carbamates, and nitriles.

    7. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent Group B comprises cyclic carbonates, linear carbonates, and linear esters.

    8. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent Group B comprises propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate, methyl butyrate, or propyl butyrate.

    9. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the organic solvents in Solvent Group B are in equivolume ratio to each other.

    10. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent A and the organic solvents in Solvent Group B are in equivolume ratio to each other.

    11. The electrolyte of claim 1, comprising ethylene carbonate; propylene carbonate; and at least three organic solvents selected from the group consisting of ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate, methyl butyrate, or propyl butyrate.

    12. The electrolyte of claim 11, comprising at least about 20 vol % ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate.

    13. The electrolyte of claim 1, further comprising one or more additives selected from the group consisting of halogenated cyclic carbonate, non-halogenated cyclic carbonate, halogenated linear carbonate, non-halogenated linear carbonate, vinylene carbonate, fluoroethylene carbonate, and lithium salt.

    14. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte further comprises about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol % halogenated cyclic carbonate, non-halogenated cyclic carbonate, halogenated linear carbonate, non-halogenated linear carbonate, unsaturated cyclic carbonate, unsaturated linear carbonate, and/or fluoroethylene carbonate.

    15. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises about 0.5 M to about 3 M lithium salt.

    16. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the lithium salt is selected from the group consisting of lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium bis(oxalate)borate, lithium difluorooxolato borate, lithium hexafluoroarsenate (V), lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium perchlorate, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium tris(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)methide, lithium bis(oxalato)borate or any combinations or mixtures thereof.

    17. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein Solvent A and Solvent Group B of the electrolyte comprise: ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, and ethyl acetate; ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, and butyl acetate; ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, and propyl butyrate; or ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, and propyl butyrate.

    18. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises: ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol % fluoroethylene carbonate, and about 0.5 M to about 3 M LiPF.sub.6; ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, butyl acetate, about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol % fluoroethylene carbonate, and about 0.5 M to about 3 M LiPF.sub.6; ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, propyl butyrate, about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol % fluoroethylene carbonate, and about 0.5 M to about 3 M LiPF.sub.6; and ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, propyl butyrate, about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol % fluoroethylene carbonate, and about 0.5 M to about 3 M LiPF.sub.6.

    19. The electrolyte of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte has a freezing point in the range of about −100° C. and lower.

    20. An electrochemical cell comprising the electrolyte of claim 1.

    Description

    BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

    [0046] The accompanying drawings illustrate disclosed embodiments and serve to explain the principles of the disclosed embodiments. It is to be understood, however, that the drawings are designed for purposes of illustration only, and not as a definition of the limits of the invention.

    [0047] FIG. 1a is a graph showing the Differential Scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements for electrolytes of Table 1 heating from −170 to 20° C. The dashed line indicates the onset temperature of melting.

    [0048] FIG. 1b is a graph showing the experimental and calculated freezing point of the electrolytes of Table 1. The insets are optical images of commercial (C1) and 10-mix electrolytes of Table 1 at −60° C.

    [0049] FIG. 1c is a series of photographs showing electrolytes of Table 1 at −60 and −85° C.

    [0050] FIG. 1d is a graph showing DSC curves of C1 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 with increasing temperature.

    [0051] FIG. 2a is a graph showing the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) energies of ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl acetate (EA), butyl acetate (BA), methyl propionate (MP), ethyl propionate (EP), methyl butyrate (MB), propyl butyrate (PB) and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC).

    [0052] FIG. 2b is a graph showing a linear sweep voltammetry study of C2 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 in a voltage range from 0 to 5.5 V.

    [0053] FIG. 2c is a graph comparing ionic conductivity versus temperature of electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0054] FIG. 2d is a graph comparing viscosity versus temperature of electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0055] FIG. 2e is a graph showing an Arrhenius plot for ionic conductivity for Li.sup.+ diffusion of electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0056] FIG. 2f is a graph showing an Arrhenius plot for activation energy for Li.sup.+ diffusion of electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0057] FIG. 2g is a graph showing freezing point versus ionic conductivity (at −40° C.) of EC:DMC:DEC (C3), EC:PC:EMC, EC:DMC:EMC, EC:DMC:DEC:EB, EC:DMC:DEC:EMC and 10 mix electrolyte of Table 1.

    [0058] FIG. 3a is a graph showing the discharging curves of Lithium Manganese Oxide/Lithium Titanate Oxide (LMO/LTO) full cell with C2 (EC:DEC) electrolyte of Table 1 at 0.1 C at various temperatures.

    [0059] FIG. 3b is a graph showing the discharging curves of LMO/LTO full cell with 10 mix electrolyte of Table 1 at 0.1 C at various temperatures.

    [0060] FIG. 3c is a graph showing the capacity retention of batteries based on the C1, C2, C3 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 with decreasing temperature.

    [0061] FIG. 3d is a series of photographs showing an image of a wristband powered by batteries with commercial (C2) and 10 mix electrolyte of Table 1 operating at −60° C. in an environmental chamber.

    [0062] FIG. 3e is a graph showing the capacity retention at −60° C. of batteries based on EC:MB:BA EC:MP:PB, and 6 mix, 8 mix-a, 8 mix-b, and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0063] FIG. 3f is a graph showing the cycling performance of a LMO/LTO cell based on the C2 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 at −40° C.

    [0064] FIG. 4a is a graph showing the isothermal titration calorimetry data for mixing propyl carbonate (PC) and ethyl acetate (EA) in both stirring and non-stirring modes.

    [0065] FIG. 4b is a graph showing the corresponding heat production of mixing of PC and EA at varying molar ratios.

    [0066] FIG. 4c is a graph showing the calculated entropy contribution during the mixing of PC and EA at varying molar ratios.

    [0067] FIG. 4d is a schematic illustrating the microscopic changes between a general electrolyte comprising 2 solvents and an electrolyte comprising 10 solvents with decreasing temperatures.

    [0068] FIG. 5 is a schematic illustrating the difference in crystallization process between a general electrolyte comprising 2 solvents and an electrolyte comprising 10 solvents.

    [0069] FIG. 6a is a schematic illustrating how the crystallization of the electrolyte can cause possible damage to the separator and SEI films in LIBs. The star shapes represent the precipitates and crystals formed during freezing.

    [0070] FIG. 6b is a graph showing how decreasing Gibbs free energy of liquid is an attractive strategy to lower the freezing point.

    [0071] FIG. 6c is a graph showing how the eutectic point of the mixture is lower than the melting point of each solvent, wherein MP.sub.A and MP.sub.B refers to the melting points of Components A and B.

    [0072] FIG. 6d is a graph showing the relationship between increasing the number of components and lowering the freezing point of electrolytes due to the entropy of mixing, wherein R is the gas constant, and x.sub.A and x.sub.B represent mole fractions of A and B respectively.

    [0073] FIG. 7 is a graph showing the DSC curve of a general mixture comprising EC and EA.

    [0074] FIG. 8 is a graph showing the ionic conductivity of a general electrolyte comprising 2 solvents (EC:EA at 1:9) at varying temperatures.

    [0075] FIG. 9a is a graph showing the capacity retention of electrolytes of Table 1 at different temperatures.

    [0076] FIG. 9b is a graph showing the capacity retention at −40° C. of batteries based on electrolytes of Table 1.

    [0077] FIG. 10 is a graph comparing rate performance of LMO/LTO full cell with C3 and 10 mix electrolyte of Table 1 at −40° C.

    [0078] FIG. 11a is a graph shows the specific capacity of C2 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 at charging rate of 2 C at temperatures of −40° C. and −50° C., when Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) is used as a cathode.

    [0079] FIG. 11b is a graph showing the specific capacity of C2 and 10 mix electrolytes of Table 1 at charging rate of 2 C at temperatures of −40° C. and −50° C., when LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) is used as a cathode.

    [0080] FIG. 12 is a graph showing the cycle performance of the a LMO/LTO full cell with 10 mix electrolyte of Table 1 at 2 C at room temperature.

    [0081] FIG. 13 is a graph showing the computed changes in enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy for mixing of PC and EA at various molar ratios.

    [0082] FIG. 14 is a graph showing the change in freezing point, entropy and capacity retention at −40° C. (relative to that of room temperature) when the number of solvents in the electrolyte is increased.

    DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF DRAWINGS

    [0083] Referring to FIG. 4d, a binary solvent-based electrolyte system is more ordered relative to a multi-component electrolyte system. Thus, when exposed to low temperatures, EC possessing a high melting point is more inclined to precipitate out first, followed by lithium salts and other solvents in the form of orderly crystals. In comparison, for the decimal solvent-based electrolyte of the current invention, the mixture is more disordered and thus EC molecules are further apart from each other, leading to a depression in freezing point, down to as −10° C. Meanwhile, the decimal solvent-based electrolyte favours the formation of an amorphous solid.

    DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF EMBODIMENTS

    [0084] The present disclosure refers to electrolytes possessing extremely low freezing points. The electrolyte may comprise one solvent A selected from a cyclic carbonate, and a solvent group B comprising at least four solvents, each solvent having a Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) level between about −9 eV to about −7 eV, and an energy band gap of at least about 5 eV between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO).

    [0085] The HOMO level of the solvents in the electrolytes may be between about −9 eV to about −7 eV, between about −8.5 eV to about −7 eV, between about −8 eV to about −7 eV, between about −7.5 eV to about −7 eV, between about −9 eV to about −7.5 eV, between about −8.5 eV to about −7.5 eV, between about −8 eV to about −7.5 eV, between about −9 eV to about −8 eV, between about −8.5 eV to about −8 eV, between about −9 eV to about −8.5 eV, about −9 eV, about −8.9 eV, about −8.8 eV, about −8.7 eV, about −8.6 eV, about −8.5 eV, about −8.4 eV, about −8.3 eV, about −8.2 eV, about −8.1 eV, about −8 eV, about −7.9 eV, about −7.8 eV, about −7.7 eV, about −7.6 eV, about −7.5 eV, about −7.4 eV, about −7.3 eV, about −7.2 eV, about −7.1 eV, about −7 eV, or any value or range therebetween.

    [0086] The LUMO level of the solvents in the electrolyte may be between about 0 eV to about 1.5 eV, between about 0.5 eV to about 1.5 eV, between about 1 eV to about 1.5 eV, between about 0 eV to about 1 eV, between about 0.5 eV to about 1 eV, between about 0 eV to about 0.5 eV, about 0 eV, about 0.1 eV, about 0.2 eV, about 0.3 eV, about 0.4 eV, about 0.5 eV, about 0.6 eV, about 0.7 eV, about 0.8 eV, about 0.9 eV, about 1 eV, about 1.1 eV, about 1.2 eV, about 1.3 eV, about 1.4 eV, about 1.5 eV, or any value or range therebetween.

    [0087] The energy band gap between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) of each solvent in the electrolyte may be at least about 5 eV, at least about 5.1 eV, at least about 5.2 eV, at least about 5.4 eV, at least about 5.5 eV, at least about 5.6 eV, at least about 5.7 eV, at least about 5.8 eV, at least about 5.9 eV, at least about 6 eV, at least about 6.1 eV, at least about 6.2 eV, at least about 6.3 eV, at least about 6.4 eV, at least about 6.5 eV, at least about 6.6 eV, at least about 6.7 eV, at least about 6.8 eV, at least about 6.9 eV, at least about 7 eV, at least about 7.1 eV, at least about 7.2 eV, at least about 7.3 eV, at least about 7.4 eV, at least about 7.5 eV, at least about 7.6 eV, at least about 7.7 eV, at least about 7.8 eV, at least about 7.9 eV, at least about 8 eV, at least about 8.1 eV, at least about 8.2 eV, at least about 8.3 eV, at least about 8.4 eV, at least about 8.5 eV, at least about 8.6 eV, at least about 8.7 eV, at least about 8.8 eV, at least about 8.9 eV, at least about 9 eV, at least about 9.1 eV, at least about 9.2 eV, at least about 9.3 eV, at least about 9.4 eV, at least about 9.5 eV, at least about 9.6 eV, at least about 9.7 eV, at least about 9.8 eV, at least about 9.9 eV, at least about 10 eV, at least about 10.1 eV, at least about 10.2 eV, at least about 10.3 eV, at least about 10.4 eV, at least about 10.5 eV, at least about 10.6 eV, at least about 10.7 eV, at least about 10.8 eV, at least about 10.9 eV, at least about 11 eV, or any value or range therebetween.

    [0088] The energy band gap between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) of each solvent in the electrolyte may be in the range of about 5 eV to about 10 eV, about 5 eV to about 9 eV, about 5 eV to about 8 eV, about 5 eV to about 7 eV, about 5 eV to about 6 eV, about 6 eV to about 10 eV, about 7 eV to about 10 eV, about 8 eV to about 10 eV, about 9 eV to about 10 eV, or any value or range therebetween. In a preferred embodiment, the organic solvents of the electrolyte should be selected based on HOMO and LUMO levels within about 1.0 eV of ethyl carbonate (EC). This advantageously results in good cyclability of the general solvent mixture. The selection of the HOMO and LUMO levels advantageously ensures stable operation and cycling of metal ion (such as lithium ion) batteries.

    [0089] Solvent A may be a cyclic carbonate. Solvent A may be any cyclic compound comprising a ring containing a carbonate functional group (—O—C(O)—O—) as part of the ring. Solvent A may be ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, or vinylethylene carbonate.

    [0090] Solvent Group B may comprise at least four organic solvents, at least five organic solvents, at least six organic solvents, at least seven organic solvents, at least eight organic solvents, or at least organic nine solvents.

    [0091] The electrolyte may contain a total of five organic solvents, six organic solvents, seven organic solvents, eight organic solvents, nine organic solvents, ten organic solvents, eleven organic solvents, or twelve organic solvents.

    [0092] Solvent Group B may comprise solvents selected from the group consisting of cyclic carbonates, linear carbonates, halogenated cyclic or linear carbonates, cyclic or linear acid esters, halogenated cyclic or linear acid esters, cyclic or linear acid amides, halogenated cyclic or linear acid amides, cyclic or linear ethers, halogenated cyclic or linear ethers, cyclic or linear esters, halogenated cyclic or linear esters, cyclic or linear carbamates, halogenated cyclic or linear carbamates, and nitriles.

    [0093] Solvent Group B may comprise solvents selected from the group consisting of cyclic carbonates, linear carbonates, and linear esters.

    [0094] Solvent Group B may comprise solvents selected from the group consisting of ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, vinylethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate, methyl butyrate, and propyl butyrate.

    [0095] The electrolyte may comprise Solvent A in a range of about 5 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 19 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 18 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 17 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 16 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 15 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 14 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 13 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 12 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 11 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 10 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 9 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 8 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 7 vol %, about 5 vol % to about 6 vol %, about 6 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 7 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 8 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 9 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 10 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 11 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 12 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 13 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 14 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 15 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 16 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 17 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 18 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 19 vol % to about 20 vol %, about 5 vol %, about 5.5 vol %, about 6 vol %, about 6.5 vol %, about 7 vol %, about 7.5 vol %, about 8 vol %, about 8.5 vol %, about 9 vol %, about 9.5 vol %, about 10 vol %, about 10.5 vol %, about 11 vol %, about 11.5 vol %, about 12 vol %, about 12.5 vol %, about 13 vol %, about 13.5 vol %, about 14 vol %, about 14.5 vol %, about 15 vol %, about 15.5 vol %, about 16 vol %, about 16.5 vol %, about 17 vol %, about 17.5 vol %, about 18 vol %, about 18.5 vol %, about 19 vol %, about 19.5 vol %, about 20 vol %, or any value or range therebetween.

    [0096] In some embodiments, one Solvent Group B organic solvent may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to another Solvent Group B organic solvent. For example, if one Solvent Group B solvent is present in X vol %, then at least one other Solvent Group B organic solvent would be present in about X vol %.

    [0097] In other embodiments, all Solvent Group B organic solvents may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to each other. For example, if there are four organic solvents in Solvent Group B and one organic solvent is present in X vol %, then each of the other three organic solvents in Solvent Group B would be present in about X vol %.

    [0098] In other embodiments, one Solvent Group B organic solvent may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to the Solvent A organic solvent. For example, if Solvent A is present in X vol %, then at least one Solvent Group B organic solvent would be present in about X vol %.

    [0099] In some embodiments, each Solvent Group B organic solvent may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to the Solvent A organic solvent. For example, if Solvent A is present in X vol % and if there are four organic solvents in Solvent Group B, then each of the four organic solvents in Solvent Group B would be present in about X vol %.

    [0100] The electrolyte may also comprise solvents from Solvent Group B in a certain vol % depending on the number of solvents in the electrolyte. The solvents may be present in the electrolyte in about 8 vol %, about 9 vol %, about 10 vol %, about 11 vol %, about 12 vol %, about 13 vol %, about 14 vol %, about 15 vol %, about 16 vol %, about 17 vol %, about 18 vol %, about 19 vol %, about 20 vol %.

    [0101] The solvents selected in Solvent Group B may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to each other. By “substantially equivolume”, it is meant that the difference in volume may be about 0.5 vol %, about 1 vol %, about 1.5 vol %, about 2 vol %, about 2.5 vol %, about 3 vol %, about 3.5 vol %, about 4 vol %, about 4.5 vol %, or about 5 vol %.

    [0102] The solvents selected in Solvent Group B may be equivolume or substantially equivolume to Solvent A in the electrolyte. By “substantially equivolume”, it is meant that the difference in volume may be about 0.5 vol %, about 1 vol %, about 1.5 vol %, about 2 vol %, about 2.5 vol %, about 3 vol %, about 3.5 vol %, about 4 vol %, about 4.5 vol %, or about 5 vol %.

    [0103] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least four other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least three other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and three other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0104] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least five other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least four other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and four other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0105] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least six other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least five other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and five other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0106] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least seven other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least six other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and six other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0107] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least eight other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least seven other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise or ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and seven other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0108] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least nine other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least eight other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and eight other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0109] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least ten other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least nine other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and nine other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0110] The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A and at least eleven other solvents taken from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and at least ten other solvents from Solvent Group B. The electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, propylene carbonate as one of the solvents of Solvent Group B, and ten other solvents from Solvent Group B.

    [0111] The electrolyte may also consist of ethylene carbonate selected from Solvent Group A, and 3, or at least 3, or 4, or at least 4, or 5, or at least 5, or 6, or at least 6, or 7, or at least 7, or 8, or at least 8, or 9, or at least 9 solvents, 10, or at least 10 solvents, 11, or at least 11 solvents selected from Solvent Group B, wherein Solvent Group B may comprise propylene carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate, methyl butyrate, and/or propyl butyrate.

    [0112] In some embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate and ethyl acetate. In other embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate and butyl acetate. In further embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate and propyl butyrate. In other embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl propionate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, butyl acetate, methyl propionate and propyl butyrate.

    [0113] In some embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise ethylene carbonate as Solvent A, and propylene carbonate, among other solvents, from Solvent Group B. The total proportion of ethyl carbonate and propylene carbonate may make up about 15 vol %, at least about 15%, about 16%, or at least about 16%, about 17%, or at least about 17%, about 18%, or at least about 18%, about 19%, or at least about 19%, about 20%, or at least about 20%, about 21%, or at least about 21%, about 22%, or at least about 22%, about 23%, or at least about 23%, about 24%, or at least about 24%, about 25%, or at least about 25%, about 26%, or at least about 26%, about 27%, or at least about 27%, about 28%, or at least about 28%, about 29%, or at least about 29%, about 30%, or at least about 30% of the total volume of the electrolyte.

    [0114] In some embodiments, the electrolyte may further comprise additives. In some embodiments the additives may be chosen from the group consisting of halogenated cyclic carbonates, non-halogenated cyclic carbonates, halogenated linear carbonates, non-halogenated linear carbonates, unsaturated cyclic carbonates, unsaturated linear carbonates and lithium salts. The additive may be fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), lithium oxalate, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, vinylene carbonate, lithium difluoro(oxalato) borate, lithium tetrafluoro(oxalato) phosphate, vinylethylene carbonate, dimethyl pyrocarbonate, diethyl pyrocarbonate, methylethyl pyrocarbonate, dimethyl sulfite, diethyl sulfite, ethylmethyl sulfite, or a combination thereof. The additive may be a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the lithium salt may be lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium bis(oxalate)borate, lithium difluorooxolato borate, lithium hexafluoroarsenate (V), lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium perchlorate, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, lithium tris(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)methide, lithium bis(oxalato)borate, or any combinations or mixtures thereof.

    [0115] In some embodiments, the concentration of the lithium salt in the electrolyte may be in the range of about 0.1 M to about 3 M, about 0.2 M to about 3 M, about 0.3 M to about 3 M, about 0.4 M to about 3 M, about 0.5 M to about 3 M, about 0.6 M to about 3 M, about 0.7 M to about 3 M, about 0.8 M to about 3 M, about 0.9 M to about 3 M, about 1.0 M to about 3 M, about 1.1 M to about 3 M, about 1.2 M to about 3 M, about 1.3 M to about 3 M, about 1.4 M to about 3 M, about 1.5 M to about 3 M, about 1.6 M to about 3 M, about 1.7 M to about 3 M, about 1.8 M to about 3 M, about 1.9 M to about 3 M, about 2.0 M to about 3 M, about 2.1 M to about 3 M, about 2.2 M to about 3 M, about 2.3 M to about 3 M, about 2.4 M to about 3 M, about 2.5 M to about 3 M, about 2.6 M to about 3 M, about 2.7 M to about 3 M, about 2.8 M to about 3 M, about 2.9 M to about 3 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.9 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.8 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.7 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.6 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.5 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.4 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.3 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.2 M, about 0.1 M to about 2.1 M, about 0.1 M to about 2 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.9 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.8 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.7 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.6 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.5 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.4 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.3 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.2 M, about 0.1 M to about 1.1 M, about 0.1 M to about 1 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.9 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.8 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.7 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.6 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.5 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.4 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.3 M, about 0.1 M to about 0.2 M, about 1.0 M to about 3 M, about 1.5 M to about 3 M, about 2.0 M to about 3 M, about 2.5 M to about 3 M, about 0.5 M to about 2.5 M, about 0.5 M to about 2 M, about 0.5 M to about 1.5 M, about 0.5 M to about 1 M, about 0.5 M to about 3 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.6 M, about M, about 0.7 M, about 0.8 M, about 0.9 M, about 1 M, about 1.1 M, about 1.2 M, about 1.3 M, about 1.4 M, about 1.5 M, about 1.6 M, about 1.7 M, about 1.8 M, about 1.9 M, about 2 M, about 2.1 M, about 2.2 M, about 2.3 M, about 2.4 M, about 2.5 M, about 2.6 M, about 2.7 M, about 2.8 M, about 2.9 M, about 3 M, about 3.1 M, about 3.2 M, about 3.3 M, about 3.4 M, about 3.5 M, at least 0.1 M, at least 0.2 M, at least 0.3 M, at least 0.4 M, at least 0.5 M, at least 0.6 M, at least 0.7 M, at least 0.8 M, at least 0.9 M, at least 1 M, at least 1.1 M, at least 1.2 M, at least 1.3 M, at least 1.4 M, at least 1.5 M, at least 1.6 M, at least 1.7 M, at least 1.8 M, at least 1.9 M, at least 2 M, at least 2.1 M, at least 2.2 M, at least 2.3 M, at least 2.4 M, at least 2.5 M, at least 2.6 M, at least 2.7 M, at least 2.8 M, at least 2.9 M, at least 3 M, at least 3.1 M, at least 3.2 M, at least 3.3 M, at least 3.4 M, at least 3.5 M. or any value or range therebetween.

    [0116] In some embodiments, the additive added may either be liquid or solid. In some embodiments the additive may be added in the range of about 0.5 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 1 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 1.5 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 2 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 2.5 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 3 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 3.5 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 4 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 4.5 vol % to about 5 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 4.5 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 4 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 3.5 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 3 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 2.5 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 2 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 1.5 vol %, about 0.5 vol % to about 1 vol %, about 0.5 vol %, about 1 vol %, about 1.5 vol %, about 2 vol %, about 2.5 vol %, about 3 vol %, about 3.5 vol %, about 4 vol %, about 4.5 vol %, about 5 vol %, or any value or range therebetween, in weight by volume of the total electrolyte.

    [0117] In some embodiments, the freezing point of the electrolyte may be in the range of about −10° C. to about −150° C., about −20° C. to about −150° C., about −25° C. to about −150° C., about −30° C. to about −150° C., about −35° C. to about −150° C., about −40° C. to about −150° C., about −45° C. to about −150° C., about −50° C. to about −150° C., about −55° C. to about −150° C., about −60° C. to about −150° C., about −65° C. to about −150° C., about −70° C. to about −150° C., about −75° C. to about −150° C., about −80° C. to about −150° C., about −85° C. to about −150° C., about −90° C. to about −150° C., about −95° C. to about −150° C., about −100° C. to about −150° C., about −105° C. to about −150° C., about −110° C. to about −150° C., about −115° C. to about −150° C., about −120° C. to about −150° C., about −125° C. to about −150° C., about −130° C. to about −150° C., about −135° C. to about −150° C., about −140° C. to about −150° C., about −145° C. to about −150° C., about −10° C., about −20° C., about −30° C., about −40° C., about −50° C., about −60° C., about −70° C., about −80° C., about −90° C., about −100° C., about −110° C., about −120° C., about −130° C., about −140° C., about −150° C., or any value or range therebetween. The freezing point of the electrolyte may be about −100° C. and lower.

    [0118] The electrolyte may exhibit enhanced ionic conductivity. In some embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte of the present invention may be about 0.1 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.2 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.3 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.4 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.6 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.7 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.8 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 0.9 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 1 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 1.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 2 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 2.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 3 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 3.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 4 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 4.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 5.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 6 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 6.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 7 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 7.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 8 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 8.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 9 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 9.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 10 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 10.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 11 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 11.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 12 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 12.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 13 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 13.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 14 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 14.5 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1, about 15 mS.Math.cm.sup.−1.

    [0119] The present disclosure further refers to an electrochemical cell, comprising an electrolyte, wherein the electrolyte comprises: [0120] Solvent A selected from cyclic carbonate; and [0121] Solvent Group B comprising at least four organic solvents, each organic solvent having a Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) level between about −9 eV to about −7 eV, and an energy band gap of at least about 5 eV between the HOMO and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO).

    [0122] An electrochemical cell comprising an electrolyte of the present invention may possess superior performance at low temperatures. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell disclosed herein may be capable of performing at temperatures of about −10° C., about −20° C., about −30° C., about −40° C., about −50° C., about −60° C., about −70° C., about −80° C., about −90° C., about −100° C., about −110° C., about −120° C., about −130° C., about −140° C., about −150° C. In other embodiments, the electrochemical cell disclosed herein may be capable of performing at temperatures below −10° C., below −20° C., below −30° C., below −40° C., below −50° C., below −60° C., below −70° C., below −80° C., below −90° C., below −100° C., below −110° C., below −120° C., below −130° C., below −140° C., below −150° C.

    [0123] An electrochemical cell comprising the electrolyte of the present invention may comprise different compatible electrodes that the electrolyte is compatible with. The electrolyte material may be made from Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO), NMC111, Lithium Titanium Oxide (LTO), LCAO, lithium-rich layered cathode, layered lithium transition metal oxide, lithium nickel manganese oxide or graphite.

    EXAMPLES

    [0124] Non-limiting examples of the invention will be further described in greater detail by reference to specific examples, which should not be construed as in any way limiting the scope of the invention.

    [0125] Materials

    [0126] LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4(LMO) microparticles, acetylene black, electrolytes of 1.0 M LiPF.sub.6 in EC:DMC (1:1), EC:DEC (1:1), NMC111 and LCO were obtained from MTI Corporation. (Richmond, Calif., USA) with metal impurity ≤25 ppb. Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) powders were purchased from Xing Neng New Materials Co., Ltd. (Guang Yuan, Sichuan, China). Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) was purchased from Arkema KYNAR 761 (Colombes, Hauts-de-Seine, France). EC, propylene carbonate (PC), DMC, DEC, EMC, ethyl propionate (EP), EA, methyl butanoate (MB), butyl acetate (BA), methyl propionate (MP), propyl butyrate (PB), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), and electrolyte of 1.0 M LiPF6 in EC:DMC:DEC (1:1:1) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Inc. (St. Louis, Mo., USA).

    Example 1: Electrolyte Preparation

    [0127] To systematically evaluate the impact of the number of solvents on the properties of electrolytes, a series of electrolytes with a varied number of solvents (denoted as n mix) and three commercial electrolytes were used for comparison (Table 1).

    TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Electrolyte no. Solvent component (Ratio of 1:1 except EC) C1 (commercial) EC:DMC (1:1) C2 (commercial) EC:DEC (1:1) C3 (commercial) EC:DMC:DEC (1:1:1) 2 mix EC:EMC 4 mix EC:DEC:PC:EMC 6 mix EC:DEC:PC:EMC:EP:EA 8 mix-a EC:DEC:PC:EMC:EP:EA:MB:BA 8 mix-b EC:DEC:PC:EMC:EP:EA:MP:PB 10 mix EC:DEC:PC:EMC:EP:EA:MB:BA:MP:PB

    [0128] In this example, the amount of EC was fixed at 10% in volume and the volume ratio of others was maintained at 1:1. To ensure a good cyclability of battery, the total fraction of EC and PC was kept at more than 20%, considering these two components play a vital role in the formation of a stable SEI.

    [0129] The other organic solvents of the electrolyte were selected based on HOMO and LUMO levels within about 1.0 eV of ethyl carbonate (EC). Considering that some solvents possess a lower LUMO compared with EC, FEC was used as an additive to promote the formation of a stable SEI.

    [0130] Solvent proportions of exemplified the electrolytes of this invention are shown in Table 2. The physical properties of the solvents (freezing point, viscosity) are further detailed in Table 3.

    TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Electrolyte Solvent components no. EC DEC PC EMC EP EA MB BA MP BA 2 mix 10% 90% 4 mix 10% 30% 30% 30% 6 mix 10% 18% 18% 18% .sup. 18% .sup. 18% 8 mix-a 10% 12.9%.sup.  12.9%.sup.  12.9%.sup.  12.9% 12.9% 12.9% 12.9% 8 mix-b 10% 12.9%.sup.  12.9%.sup.  12.9%.sup.  12.9% 12.9% 12.9% 12.9% 10 mix 10% 10% 10% 10% .sup. 10% .sup. 10% .sup. 10% .sup. 10% .sup. 10% .sup. 10%

    TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Melting point Viscosity Solvent T.sub.m/° C. η/cP 25° C. Ethylene carbonate (EC) 36.4 1.90 (40° C.) Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) 4.6 0.63 Propylene carbonate (PC) −48.8 2.53 Ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) −53 0.65 Diethyl carbonate (DEC) −74.3 0.75 Ethyl acetate (EA) −84 0.45 Butyl acetate (BA) −78 0.68 Methyl propionate (MP) −87.5 0.431 Ethyl propionate (EP) −73 Methyl butanoate (MB) −85.8 0.541 Propyl butyrate (PB) −95.2

    Example 2: Freezing Point Determination

    [0131] Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to investigate the freezing point of the electrolytes through a DSC 2010 differential scanning calorimeter (TA Instruments, New Castle, Del., USA). During measurement, the sealed pan with electrolyte was first cooled down to −170° C. at the rate of 10° C. min.sup.−1 by a liquid nitrogen cooling system, then equilibrated at −170° C. and held isothermally for another 20 min, finally followed by scanning from −170 to 25° C. at the rate of 5° C. min.sup.−1. The freezing point of the electrolyte was acquired by taking the temperature at the onset of endothermic change from the thermal baseline (FIGS. 1a, 1b and Table 4).

    TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Experimental Electrolyte no. Freezing Points C1 (commercial) −30 C2 (commercial) −30 C3 (commercial) −50 2 mix −71 4 mix −111.84 6 mix −124.36 8 mix-a −124.34 8 mix-b −126.66 10 mix −130

    [0132] The freezing points decreased greatly with an increase in the number of solvents from 2 mix to 10 mix. When the component number increased to 10, the freezing point of electrolyte significantly decreased to −130° C., far superior to ˜−30° C. of the commercial binary electrolytes C1 and C2. It was also further observed the decimal solvent-based electrolyte still existed as a liquid in an environmental chamber at −85° C., while commercial binary (C1, C2) and ternary solvent-based electrolytes (C3) were completely frozen at −60° C. (FIG. 1c).

    [0133] To show that the superior lowered freezing points of the electroytes of this invention was not due to the low content of EC, two mixtures, EC:EMC (1:9) and EC:EA (1:9, FIG. 7) were utilized as control samples and the DSC results showed no significant improvement in the freezing point of the electrolytes. Furthermore, the freezing crystallization of electrolytes commonly observed in commercial samples, was greatly suppressed with the introduction of more solvents, protecting LIBs from irreversible damage at extremely low temperatures (FIG. 1d).

    Example 3: Viscosity Measurements

    [0134] The apparent viscosity of the electrolyte at various temperatures was obtained with a DV3T viscometer (Brookfield AMETEK, Middleboro, Mass., USA).

    TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Electrolyte Viscosity Measurements (cP, ° C.) no. 25 20 15 10 5 C2 (commercial) 4.7 5.2 6.0 7.1 8.6 C3 (commercial) 4.1 4.7 5.5 6.9 8.0 4 mix 3.8 4.3 4.9 5.8 6.5 6 mix 3.1 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.5 8 mix-a 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.4 5.0 8 mix-b 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.4 5.1 10 mix 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.4 5.2

    [0135] Viscosity measurements showed both the commercial electrolytes (C2, C3) have higher viscosities compared to the electrolytes of this current invention. Additionally, viscosities of the commercial electrolytes increased at a higher rate compared to the decimal solvent-based electrolytes when temperature was reduced 25° C. to 5° C. (FIG. 2d and Table 5)

    Example 4: Ionic Conductivity Measurements

    [0136] The ionic conductivity of electrolytes at various temperatures was measured with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (Solartron, Farnborough, Hampshire, UK).

    [0137] The ionic conductivity of commercial and multicomponent electrolytes was studied over a range of temperatures. At room temperature (25° C.), these electrolytes showed comparable Li.sup.+ diffusivity (FIG. 2c and Table 6).

    TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Electrolyte Ionic Conductivity Measurement (mS .Math. cm.sup.−1, ° C.) no. 25 0 −20 −40 −60 C2 (commercial) 8 4 2 0.7 0.02 C3 (commercial) 9 3 2 0.5 0.02 4 mix 9 5 2.5 0.9 0.15 6 mix 8.5 4.6 2.3 0.8 0.15 8 mix-a 10 6 4 2 0.6 8 mix-b 10 7 4 2 0.7 10 mix 10 7 4 2 0.62

    [0138] The ionic conductivity of commercial binary and ternary solvent-based electrolytes were observed to decrease significantly with decreasing temperature, especially below −40° C. In comparison, the electrolytes of this present invention displayed better ionic conductivities relative to the commercial electrolytes at the same temperature. In particular, the 10 mix electrolyte exhibited an unprecedented high conductivity of 0.62 mS.Math.cm−1 at −60° C., several orders of magnitude greater than the commercial C2 electrolyte. Such high ionic conductivity might be attributed to the comparatively lower viscosity of electrolyte of this present invention.

    TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 7 Activation Energy Electrolyte no. (kJ .Math. mol.sup.−1) C2 (commercial) 22 C3 (commercial) 25 4 mix 25 6 mix 25 8 mix-a 17 8 mix-b 16 10 mix 17

    [0139] The lower ionic conductivities may also be explained using the activation energy for Li.sup.+ diffusion. The activation energy of Li.sup.+ diffusion in electrolytes, obtained from the slope of the σ versus 1/T plot (FIG. 2e), was significantly reduced by about 30% when the solvent number increased to six (FIG. 2f and Table 7).

    [0140] In terms of both liquidus temperature and lithium diffusion capability at −40° C., the electrolytes of the present invention are much superior to the commercial electrolytes (FIG. 2g). Therefore, the introduction of decimal solvents endows electrolytes with both an ultra-low freezing point and high low-temperature ionic conductivity.

    Example 5: Exemplary Entropy Measurement

    [0141] The heat production of solvent mixing was monitored by Nano isothermal titration calorimetry (Nano ITC) (TA Instruments). PC-to-EA titration was conducted at 25° C. with per injection volume of 2 μL and the titration interval of 300 s. The molar density of PC and EA is 0.010588 and 0.009214 mol.Math.mL.sup.−1, respectively.

    [0142] The underlying mechanism behind the freezing point depression was investigated by ITC (TA Instruments, New Castle, Del., USA), taking the mixing of PC and EA as an example. The heat production during mixing includes two contributions: the change of enthalpy and entropy. The enthalpy contribution was calculated from the measured heat of ideal mixing in the stirring mode from Redlich-Kister polynomial equations (FIG. 4a), while the entropy change could be computed (FIG. 4c) based on the deviations of heat production (FIG. 4b) in the non-stirring mode from ideal mixing. These results demonstrated that the introduction of more kinds of miscible solvents increased the system entropy (FIG. 13), which is the underlying reason for the greatly depressed freezing point of multicomponent electrolytes (FIG. 6d). Based on these observations, a comprehensive picture of the whole process can be obtained (FIG. 4d). For commercial binary solvent-based electrolytes, the system is more ordered. The higher melting point component of EC is more inclined to precipitate first with the decrease of temperature, followed by lithium salt and other solvents, in the form of orderly crystals. This freezing crystallization may cause irreversible mechanical damage to the separator and SEI film of LIBs. The molecular ordering also limits the lowering of the liquidus temperature of commercial electrolytes (˜−30° C.). For decimal solvent-based high-entropy electrolytes, the mixture is more disordered. EC molecules are more separated from each other. Therefore, the transition temperature at which electrolytes turn from liquid into solid can be lowered to −10° C. Meanwhile, freezing of this decimal solvent-based electrolyte favors the formation of amorphous solid, which is less damaging to LIB internal structures (FIGS. 5, 6a). As a result, the lowered freezing point and suppressed crystallization of decimal solvent-based high-entropy electrolyte extend the survival temperature range of LIBs significantly.

    Example 5: Electrode Fabrication

    [0143] LMO and LTO were used as active materials of the cathode and anode respectively. Binder and conductive agents were used without further treatment. For the preparation of working electrodes, active materials (80 wt %) and conductive agent (10 wt %) were thoroughly mixed with binders (10 wt %). The homogenous slurry was pasted on aluminum or copper foil and dried in air at 60° C. for 2 h, and then dried in vacuum at 100° C. overnight to remove residual solvent.

    Example 6: Electrolyte Testing

    [0144] Electrochemical properties were investigated using CR2032 coin-type cells. All cells were assembled inside an argon-filled glovebox with oxygen and water contents below 0.6 ppm. Commercial electrolytes and our designed electrolytes with the varied number of solvents were used as the battery electrolyte. The discharging/charging tests of batteries were performed on a NEWARE battery analyzer (Shenzhen, Guangdong, China) at different current rates. For the measurement of low-temperature performance, the batteries were placed in a climatic chamber (ESPEC, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan) and rested to reach thermal equilibrium. Linear sweep voltammetry was carried out on an electrochemical station (Solartron).

    [0145] Using a LMO/LTO full cell as a model system, these electrolytes of the present invention were used to test LIBs operating at low temperatures.

    TABLE-US-00008 TABLE 8 C2 10 mix Temperature Specific capacity Specific capacity (° C.) (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) 25 110 110 0 105 109 −20 90 109 −40 0 98 −60 0 43

    [0146] For batteries with commercial binary and ternary solvent-based electrolytes, both capacity and discharging voltage greatly decreased with the temperature, and the battery can hardly be discharged below −40° C. (FIG. 3a and Table 8). In comparison, the 10 mix electrolyte of the present disclosure could be discharged even well below −60° C. (FIG. 3b).

    TABLE-US-00009 TABLE 9 Specific Capacity retention (mAh−1g−1) Temperature 8 mix 8 mix (° C.) C1 C2 C3 6 mix a b 10 mix 25 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 0 105 105 106 108 108 108 109 −20 81 90 94 108 108 108 109 −40 0 0 0 52 73 78 98 −60 0 0 0 21 32 36 43

    [0147] For high-entropy decimal solvent-based electrolyte, the capacity retention at low temperatures is significantly enhanced and the battery can maintain 80% capacity at −40° C. and about 37% at −60° C. at 0.1 C (1 C=140 m.Math.g.sup.−1) (FIGS. 3c, 3e, 9a and 9b and Table 9). Notably, our batteries are charged and discharged at the same low temperatures instead of the conventional testing routine, wherein the LIBs are charged at a higher temperature followed by test-charging at a lower temperature.

    TABLE-US-00010 TABLE 10 Specific Capacity Retention Rate of Charging (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) (C) C3 10 mix 0.2 32 81 0.5 18 78 1 8.6 68 2 0 41

    [0148] Meanwhile, the batteries with decimal solvent-based electrolyte displayed significantly enhanced rate performance at sub-zero temperatures (FIG. 10 and Table 10) compared to batteries containing commercial C3 electrolytes.

    Example 7: Testing Electrolyte in Other Cathodes

    [0149]

    TABLE-US-00011 TABLE 11 Specific Capacity Retention in Specific Capacity Retention in Temperature LCO/LTO cell (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) NMC111/LTO cell (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) (° C.) C2 10 mix C2 10 mix −40 0 89.5 0 81.8 −50 0 6.7 0 49.7

    [0150] The same decimal solvent-based electrolytes were similarly applied to cells containing other types of electrodes (FIGS. 11a, 11 b and Table 11). Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) and NMC111 as cathodes were tested and results showed that batteries were able to discharge at similar efficiencies relative to cells using LMO as cathode. It was additionally found that LCO and NMC111 batteries containing decimal solvent-based electrolytes had better capacity retention compared to batteries containing C2 as an electrolyte. This demonstrated the versatility of the decimal solvent-based electrolyte in other electrochemical cell applications.

    Example 8: Cycling Performance

    [0151] The cycling performance of the electrolyte was additionally tested on an LMO/LTO cell, using a C2 electrolyte as a control.

    TABLE-US-00012 TABLE 12 Specific Capacity Retention at −40° C. Cycle (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) Number C2 10 mix 10 3.2 79.9 20 1.7 76.2 30 1.1 72.9 40 0.82 71

    TABLE-US-00013 TABLE 13 10 mix Cycle Coulombic Efficiency Specific Capacity Retention at 25° C. Number (%) (mAh.sup.−1g.sup.−1) 50 99.675 52.96793 100 99.676 50.65465 150 99.678 48.52192 200 99.68 46.49876

    [0152] The cycling performance of the electrolyte was measured at 25° C. using an LMO/LTO cell. Results showed that the specific capacity retention of the cell decreased by only 12.2% after 200 charging/discharging cycles, showing the robustness of the electrolyte (FIG. 12 and Table 13). The cycling performance of the cell containing the electrolyte was also tested at low temperatures, using the C2 electrolyte as a control. We were able to demonstrate the superior performance of decimal solvent-based electrolytes over a commercial binary solvent-based electrolyte at −40° C. (FIG. 3f and Table 12). The decimal solvent-based electrolyte was able to maintain its original specific capacity retention after 40 cycles, but the commercial electrolyte had much poorer discharge values.

    Example 9: Practical Application

    [0153] The practical applications of the cell containing the decimal solvent-based electrolyte was additionally tested. The batteries containing the decimal solvent-based electrolyte and commercial electrolyte (C1) were initially stored at −85° C., after which they were equilibrated to −60° C. and tested on a wristband. Even after storage at ultra-low temperatures, the battery with decimal solvent-based electrolyte still works well and was able to light up a wristband at −60° C. (FIG. 3d).

    [0154] This should be attributed to the unprecedented low freezing point of −130° C. and the suppressed freezing crystallization of the high-entropy electrolyte, according to the experiments above (FIG. 14). Other concerns like the Jahn-Teller distortion of the LMO cathode and gassing of the LTO anode may be further addressed via doping and coating, as well as additional electrolyte formulation for practical applications. However, the decimal solvent-based electrolytes of this present invention well extend the survival and operation temperature range for LIBs.

    INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY

    [0155] The present invention relates to high-entropy electrolytes for use in electrochemical cell applications, particularly low-temperature applications. The electrolytes of the present invention possess unprecedented freezing points compared to the currently known electrolytes. The electrolytes of the present invention also do not undergo freezing crystallisation, which reduces damage to the electrochemical cells, increasing longevity and capacity of the cells, while reducing maintenance and production costs. Thus, this invention is capable of industrial applicability.

    [0156] It will be apparent that various other modifications and adaptations of the invention will be apparent to the person skilled in the art after reading the foregoing disclosure without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention and it is intended that all such modifications and adaptations come within the scope of the appended claims.