Ultrathin parylene-C semipermeable membranes for biomedical applications

Abstract

Thin parylene C membranes having smooth front sides and ultrathin regions (e.g., 0.01 μm to 5 μm thick) interspersed with thicker regions are disclosed. The back sides of the membranes can be rough compared with the smooth front sides. The membranes can be used in vitro to grow monolayers of cells in a laboratory or in vivo as surgically implantable growth layers, such as to replace the Bruch's membrane in the eye. The thin regions of parylene are semipermeable to allow for proteins in serum to pass through, and the thick regions give mechanical support for handling by a surgeon. The smooth front side allows for monolayer cell growth, and the rough back side helps prevents cells from attaching there.

Claims

1. A synthetic semipermeable membrane for cellular therapy, the membrane comprising: a supporting film having through perforations extending from a first side to an opposing second side; and a parylene layer produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of parylene over the perforated supporting film while the perforated supporting film is attached to a flat surface, the CVD sufficient to cover walls and a flat surface bottom of each perforation of the supporting film, and removing the supporting film with its parylene layer from the flat surface to form the membrane, wherein the membrane has a smooth front side with exposed areas of the parylene layer and is configured to facilitate the growth of a monolayer of cells and a rough back side configured to inhibit cell growth.

2. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the membrane is seeded with a plurality of cells.

3. The membrane of claim 2, wherein the plurality of cells form a monolayer on the membrane.

4. The membrane of claim 3, wherein the cells include heart muscle cells, cartilage trabeculae cells, or retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells.

5. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the membrane is composed of parylene C.

6. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the membrane has a plurality of thick regions that are two times as thick as a plurality of thin regions in the membrane.

7. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the perforations occur in a random array with an average feature size of about 1 micron to 10 microns.

8. A synthetic semipermeable membrane for cellular therapy, the membrane comprising: a smooth front side having exposed parylene layer areas and configured to facilitate the growth of a monolayer of cells, wherein the front side has a thickness of 0.15 microns to 0.5 microns and allows passage of molecules having a molecular weight of up to 1,302 kDa; a rough back side configured to inhibit cell growth and comprising a plurality of thin regions interspersed in a contiguous thick region, wherein the contiguous thick region provides mechanical support and rigidity to the membrane, the front and back sides having been formed from chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of parylene over a supporting film having perforations while the perforated supporting film is attached to a flat surface, the CVD of parylene at bottoms of the perforations forming the exposed parylene layer areas of the front side, wherein the plurality of thin regions are a plurality of cylindrical recesses in the membrane.

9. The membrane of claim 8, wherein the front side is configured to facilitate growth of a monolayer of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells.

10. The membrane of claim 8, wherein the parylene is parylene C.

11. The membrane of claim 8, wherein a thickness of the contiguous thick region is constant.

12. The membrane of claim 11, wherein the thickness of the contiguous thick region is about 1 micron to about 30 microns.

13. The membrane of claim 12, wherein the thickness of the front side is about 0.15 microns to about 0.8 microns.

14. The membrane of claim 8, wherein the plurality of thin regions are interspersed in a grid-like pattern.

15. The membrane of claim 8, wherein the cylindrical recesses each have a diameter of at least about 10 microns.

16. A synthetic semipermeable membrane for cellular therapy, the membrane comprising: a smooth front side having exposed parylene layer areas and configured to facilitate the growth of a monolayer of cells, wherein the front side has a thickness of 0.15 microns to 0.5 microns and allows passage of molecules having a molecular weight of up to 1,302 kDa; a rough back side configured to inhibit cell growth and comprising a plurality of thin regions interspersed in a contiguous thick region, wherein the contiguous thick region provides mechanical support and rigidity to the membrane, the front and back sides having been formed from chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of parylene over a supporting film having perforations while the perforated supporting film is attached to a flat surface, the CVD of parylene at bottoms of the perforations forming the exposed parylene layer areas of the front side, wherein the plurality of thin regions are interspersed in a grid-like pattern.

17. A synthetic semipermeable membrane for cellular therapy, the membrane comprising: a smooth front side having exposed parylene layer areas and configured to facilitate the growth of a monolayer of cells, wherein the front side has a thickness of 0.15 microns to 0.5 microns and allows passage of molecules having a molecular weight of up to 1,302 kDa; a rough back side configured to inhibit cell growth and comprising a plurality of thin regions interspersed in a contiguous thick region, wherein the contiguous thick region provides mechanical support and rigidity to the membrane, the front and back sides having been formed from chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of parylene over a supporting film having perforations while the perforated supporting film is attached to a flat surface, the CVD of parylene at bottoms of the perforations forming the exposed parylene layer areas of the front side, wherein the front side of the membrane is seeded with a plurality of cells.

18. The membrane of claim 17, wherein the plurality of cells form a monolayer on the front side of the membrane.

19. The membrane of claim 18, wherein the cells are retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells.

20. The membrane of claim 17, wherein the plurality of thin regions are interspersed in a grid-like pattern.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1A is an oblique, cut-away top view of a semipermeable membrane growing a monolayer of cells in accordance with an embodiment.

(2) FIG. 1B is an oblique, cut-away top view of the semipermeable membrane of FIG. 1A without the cells.

(3) FIG. 1C is an oblique, cut-away bottom view of the semipermeable membrane of FIG. 1B.

(4) FIG. 2A is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a top side of a semipermeable membrane manufactured in accordance with an embodiment.

(5) FIG. 2B is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a bottom side of the semipermeable membrane of FIG. 2A.

(6) FIG. 3 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment.

(7) FIG. 4A illustrates depositing an initial thick parylene layer in a manufacturing process for a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment.

(8) FIG. 4B illustrates a metal and photoresist application step in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(9) FIG. 4C illustrates a photolithographic exposure step in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(10) FIG. 4D illustrates an etching step in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(11) FIG. 4E illustrates a peeling of the thick layer step in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(12) FIG. 4F illustrates an attachment of the thick layer to another substrate in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(13) FIG. 4G illustrates deposition of an ultrathin layer of parylene in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(14) FIG. 4H illustrates the completed membrane removed from the second substrate in the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(15) FIG. 4I illustrates the membrane being used to grow a monolayer of cells after the manufacturing process of FIG. 4A.

(16) FIG. 5 illustrates an implantable membrane in accordance with an embodiment.

(17) FIG. 6 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane with sharp and soft features in accordance with an embodiment.

(18) FIG. 7 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane with backfilled depressions in accordance with an embodiment.

(19) FIG. 8 is an image of cell growth on a porous membrane of the prior art.

(20) FIG. 9 is an image of cell growth on a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment.

(21) FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating a process in accordance with an embodiment.

(22) FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating a process in accordance with an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(23) Generally, devices, systems, and methods for manufacturing a semipermeable parylene C membrane are disclosed. A membrane with ultrathin (e.g., 0.01 μm to 5 μm thick) parylene regions is arranged to have a smooth side and a spatially variable thickness. The smooth side can be used to grow a monolayer of cells, while the bumps or undulations on the second side prevent cell growth on the second side. The ultrathin portions of the parylene are permeable to protein-sized molecules but impermeable to cells, which are on the order of 4 μm (for tiny photoreceptor rod and cone cells of the retina) to greater than 20 μm. The thicker portions of the membrane, which are interspersed with the thin portions, make the membrane stronger, less prone to folding or undulating, and generally easier to handle for surgeons.

(24) Prior art porous membranes have been found to have disadvantages. First, the fabrication of small holes (i.e., <0.1 μm) is difficult to perform reliably. Therefore, in some applications where the cut-off selective size of the particles has to be smaller than 0.1 μm, porous membranes usually are not capable for biological applications. Second, when used in on-membrane cell culture applications, the porous topology may disturb the adherence and morphology of biological cells. The nooks and crannies of the pores present a non-smooth, variable surface, which is suboptimal for the growth of even cell monolayers. This can make the in vitro cultured cells very different from cells growing in their in vivo natural environment.

(25) Materials that are naturally semipermeable are known, such as collagen and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). However, the surfaces of these semipermeable materials are often sponge-like. They are often not biocompatible, so they are not proper for implantation applications. Furthermore, they are difficult to reliably pattern into desired shapes and designs.

(26) Parylene (including all the parylene derivatives such as parylene N, C, D, HT, AM, A, etc.) has been shown to be a superior biocompatible material, but it is usually used as a protective coating to prevent harmful large molecules from going through it. The inventors have not only determined how to use parylene as a permeable material, but they have also performed an in-depth study of the permeability of ultrathin parylene C to optimize the “thickness design” of parylene semi-permeable membranes. It has been found that parylene is permeable below some thicknesses, and the thinner the parylene, the more permeable it is. Furthermore, it is proposed that parylenes with thicknesses from 0.01 μm to 5 μm (or 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, and 4.8 μm) can readily be used as semipermeable membranes in medical applications when coupled with thicker frames and supporting films.

(27) Technical advantages of some of the embodiments are many. The smooth surface of the front side of a membrane is advantageous for cell growth than rough or spongy surfaces. The thin parylene areas allow nutrients and cell waste to pass through the membrane, while the thick areas give mechanical support and rigidity so that the membrane is less prone to tearing, folding, undulating, etc. during implantation. The thickness of the ultrathin parylene can be scaled for growing any cell type in a monolayer for implantation in the body. For example, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) can be grown in a monolayer on the membrane. Cartilage trabeculae, heart muscle, and other cells can be grown in a monolayer as well. Besides facilitating in vitro perfusion cell culture, semipermeable parylene-C membrane also has use in the in vivo replacement of a Bruch's membrane in the eye for age-related macular degeneration. Bruch's membrane allows the passage of molecules with MW below 75 kDa.

(28) An embodiment may be able to replace impaired human semipermeable tissue membranes anywhere in the human body, not just the Bruch's membrane. For example, the human lens capsule and collagen film can use parylene C membranes thinner than 0.30 μm.

(29) As a proof of design, ultrathin parylene C membranes with thicknesses ranging from 0.15 μm to 0.80 μm have been experimentally verified. At least four different thicknesses (i.e., 0.15 μm, 0.30 μm, 0.50 μm, and 0.80 μm) of parylene C membranes manufactured on perforated support films were subject to diffusion studies using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran molecules of different molecular weights (MWs) at body temperature (37° C.; 98.6° F.). A diffusion coefficients for each of five molecules (i.e. 10 kDa, 40 kDa, 70 kDa, 125 kDa, and 250 kDa) was obtained by fitting concentration-time curves into the equation:

(30) $\begin{array}{cc}{C}_2=\frac{C_0{V}_1}{V\left(1-\exp \left(-\frac{\mathrm{Dt}}{\tau h}\right)\right)}\mathrm{where}& \mathrm{Eqn}.1\\ \tau =\frac{\left(V_1+\frac{A_{\mathrm{eff}}h}{2}\right)\left(V_2+\frac{A_{\mathrm{eff}}h}{2}\right)}{A_{\mathrm{eff}}V}& \mathrm{Eqn}.2\end{array}$

(31) where C.sub.0 is the initial concentration on a first side of the membrane, C.sub.2 is the concentration on the second side of the membrane (where C.sub.2 at the start of each experiment is 0), V.sub.1 and V.sub.2 are the volumes of liquid on the respective sides of the membrane and V=V.sub.1+V.sub.2 (i.e., the total volume), h is the thickness of the ultrathin regions of the membrane (i.e., 0.15 μm, 0.30 μm, 0.50 μm, and 0.80 μm), and A.sub.eff is the effective area of the ultrathin portion of the membrane.

(32) Because the membrane's thick regions were 20-μm diameter holes with a center-to-center spacing of 30 μm, A.sub.eff for all the tested membranes is:

(33) $\begin{array}{cc}{A}_{\mathrm{eff}}=\frac{{\pi \left(0.10\mu m\right)}^2}{0.30\mu m\times 0.30\mu m}& \mathrm{Eqn}.3\end{array}$

(34) After obtaining the diffusion coefficients, the theoretical MW exclusion limit was then calculated for each thickness of film by extrapolating the linear relationship between the diffusion coefficients and the natural log of MW (i.e., ln(MW)) to a diffusion coefficient of zero. The results of this calculation are tabled in Table 1. Also tabled are respective exclusion radiuses (and diameters), calculated from the MWs of the FITC-dextran molecules.

(35) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Thickness Exclusion MW Exclusion radius Exclusion diameter (μm) (kDa) (μm) (μm) 0.15 1,302 0.02560 0.05120 0.30 1,008 0.02262 0.04524 0.50 291 0.01239 0.02478 0.80 71 0.0625 0.01250

(36) Determining exclusion diameters of certain thicknesses of parylene is only part of the solution. While an ultrathin material may work in a laboratory, it may not be suitable in real-world situations.

(37) Working with extremely thin parylene is difficult. To facilitate and strengthen the mechanical bending, stretching, and handling of ultrathin parylene, a thick supporting substrate design is disclosed. The supporting substrate is preferably thicker (e.g., 1-30 μm) than the ultrathin layers, such as two times as thick as the ultrathin layer. It can have various geometries, such as a mesh, net, pore, etc. geometry.

(38) Further, a new substrate having an ultrathin parylene membrane with its back filled with some extremely permeable materials, such as silicone or hydrogels, is proposed for certain applications.

(39) U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0236461 A1 to Coffey et al., published Sep. 29, 2011 (hereinafter “Coffey”), describes a polymer membrane for supporting the growth of retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells in the human eye. Coffey discloses membrane pores between 0.2 μm and 0.5 μm in diameter (Coffey paragraph [0009]). The pore diameters in Coffey are substantially larger than exclusion diameters present in parylene C at the 0.01- to 5-μm thicknesses presented in this application (e.g., 0.0512 μm diameter; see Table 1). Furthermore, Coffey teaches that its membrane is preferably made from a hydrophilic polymer, such as polyester (see, e.g., Coffey paragraphs [0024] and [0043]), where parylene is characteristically hydrophobic.

(40) The figures will be used to further describe aspects of the application.

(41) FIGS. 1A-1C are oblique, cut-away views of a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 1A shows cells 106 growing on top of the membrane, while FIG. 1B omits the cells. FIG. 1C shows a bottom view of the membrane.

(42) Biocompatible membrane system 100 includes membrane 101 having a front, top side 104 and a back, bottom side 105. Orientation terms of “front,” “top,” “back,” “bottom,” etc. are for the convenience of the reader and are not limiting as to absolute orientation. Front side 104 is smooth, having no salient protrusions or recesses that inhibit the natural formation of cells growing as a monolayer. Back side 105 is relatively rough, inhibiting or reducing the growth of cells.

(43) Membrane 101 includes thin regions 102 interspersed with thick regions 103. In this embodiment, thick regions 103 are substantially contiguous with one another, and thin regions 102 comprise cylindrical recesses in the membrane. Thin regions 102 are interspersed in a regular, grid-like patterned array on membrane 101. In some embodiments, a random array, as opposed to one with a recognizable pattern, can be interspersed on the membrane. Embodiments having a combination of patterned and random arrays are also contemplated.

(44) On front side 104, thin regions 102 flow cleanly with thick regions 103 to form a smooth surface as shown in FIG. 1B. On back side 105, thin regions 102 abruptly change to the plateaus of thick regions 103, forming a rough surface.

(45) The thin regions are of a predetermined thickness, predetermined based on a permeability desired. For example, to allow proteins having a molecular weight of 70 kDa or smaller to flow through while inhibiting molecules having a molecular weight of over 100 kDa, the thickness of the thin regions can be engineered to be 0.80 μm thick (see Table 1).

(46) The thick regions can be 2, 3, 4, 5, or 10 (and gradations in between) or more times thicker than the thin sections. Their increased thickness allows the entire membrane to be more easily handled. In the exemplary embodiment, thick regions 103 are 3 times the thickness of thin regions 102. In certain applications, thicknesses of more than 6 μm may be unwieldy. In some other cases, thick region thicknesses between 1 μm and 30 μm (such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29 μm) thick can be used.

(47) In other embodiments, the thin regions can be substantially contiguous with one another, with the thick regions comprising protrusions from the back side of the membrane. That is, instead of a bunch of holes as shown in FIG. 1C, there can be a bunch of mounds or other protrusions from an otherwise thin membrane.

(48) “Substantially contiguous” regions include those that are flat with respect to each other without barriers or whose barriers are less than 10, 15, 20, or 25% of the respective regions' widths or as otherwise known in the art.

(49) FIGS. 2A-2B are scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of top and bottom sides of a semipermeable membrane manufactured in accordance with an embodiment.

(50) In FIG. 2A, thin regions 202 of membrane 201 are almost transparent as seen from top side 204. They exhibit a drum-head like appearance, stretching over openings 207 in thick regions 203. Thicknesses of between 0.1 μm to 10 μm are considered to be a good range for many biological cells, allowing diffusion of proteins in serum to flow through the membrane. Thicknesses between 0.15 μm to 0.8 μm have been studied in depth. Thick regions of 3 μm to 4 μm thick allow a surgeon to manipulate the membrane with less chance of tearing, fold back, or undulation.

(51) In FIG. 2B, recess 208 appears as a hole in thick region 203, bottoming out with thin region 202. The walls of recess 208 have been coated with an ultrathin layer of parylene to approximately the same thickness as the thin regions 202 as a result of a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process described below.

(52) FIG. 3 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment. Substrate 300 includes membrane 301 with thick regions 303 interspersed with repeating thin regions 302. Average feature size 310 of the plateaus between the repeating thin regions is about 10 μm (e.g., 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 μm). The thin regions are about 20 μm (17, 18, 19, 20, 21, or 22 μm) in diameter. The average, edge-to-edge (or center-to-center) pitch 312 is 30 μm (e.g., 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 μm). Thin region thickness 313 is 1 μm, while thick region thickness 314 is 3-4 μm. This spacing has been found to inhibit or reduce growth of cells that are about 20 μm in length.

(53) FIGS. 4A-4H illustrate a manufacturing process for a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment.

(54) As shown in FIG. 4A, an 8-μm thick supporting film 422 of parylene C is deposited on a cleaned, HMDS- (hexamethyldisilazane- or hexamethyldisiloxane-) treated silicon substrate 421. As shown in FIG. 4B, aluminum 423 is deposited on the parylene C supporting film 422 as an etching mask, followed by photoresist layer 424. As shown in FIG. 4C, photoresist layer 424 is illuminated in a random or patterned array using light 427. The photoresist becomes insoluble in regions 425 and soluble in regions 426. Soluble photoresist 426 is then washed away. As shown in FIG. 4D, wet-etching and reactive-ion etching (RIE) is used to etch 20 μm-diameter holes through supporting film 422 down to silicon substrate 421, to create array 428.

(55) As shown in FIG. 4E, the now-perforated parylene layer 422 is removed from silicon substrate 421. As shown in FIG. 4F, perforated parylene layer 422 is attached to a different HDMS-treated silicon substrate 431. As shown in FIG. 4G, ultrathin parylene C film 429 (e.g., 0.15 μm to 0.80 μm thick) is then deposited on supporting film 422. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process results in a thin layer of parylene coating the walls as well as the bottom of the recesses. As shown in FIG. 4H, the completed membrane is peeled off, reversed and treated with O.sub.2 plasma. The entire membrane, including both its thick and thin sections, is parylene, such as parylene C.

(56) Manufactured membrane 401 has front side 404 (on the bottom in the figure) and back side 405 (on the top in the figure). Thin sections 402 are interlaced with thick sections 403 in pattern 428.

(57) FIG. 4I illustrates membrane 401 being used to grow a monolayer of cells. The membrane has been rotated so that front side 404 faces up and back side 405 faces down. Cells 406 grow on smooth, front side 404 of membrane 401. Cells can be grown on the membrane in any orientation.

(58) FIG. 5 illustrates an implantable membrane in accordance with an embodiment. Implantable membrane system 500 includes membrane 501 having tiny interlaced regions of ultrathin and thick biocompatible parylene. Frame 540 surrounds membrane 501 with a thick, relatively sharp edge that prevents or retards cells from migrating from a front, smooth side of the membrane to the back. Not only does frame 540 prevent or retard cells from migrating, but the relatively pointy and sharp edges of the rough side of the membrane prevents cells from gaining a foothold on the back side of the membrane. In this way, a surgeon can maximize the healthy monolayer growth of cells on one side of the membrane while minimizing undesirable cells on the back of the monolayer. This can be important in some applications, such as replacing the RPE behind the retina in the eye.

(59) Tab 541 allows a surgeon's forceps or tool to hold the membrane, with cut-off section 542, or as otherwise described in U.S. Patent Application No. 61/481,037, filed Apr. 29, 2011.

(60) FIG. 6 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane with sharp and soft features in accordance with an embodiment. Membrane system 600 includes membrane 601 with thin regions 602 of predetermined thickness 613.

(61) Near circumference ring 640, membrane 601 includes thick regions 603 that have rectangular cross sections. Farther away from circumference ring 640, near the center of membrane 601, are thick regions 643 having rounded cross sections. Thick regions 603 have relatively sharp features with respect to thick regions 643, and thick regions 643 have relatively smooth features in comparison with thick regions 603.

(62) Having relatively sharp regions near the circumference can retard or prevent cells that do happen to migrating around the edges of the membrane from growing on the membrane. Near the center, where there is less of a chance of cells migrating, the hills and valleys of the thick and thin regions can be smooth so that the membrane is better accepted during implantation and more compatible with the body.

(63) FIG. 7 is a side, elevation view of a semipermeable membrane with backfilled depressions in accordance with an embodiment. In membrane device 700, membrane 701 has thin regions 702 and thick regions 703. Depressions on the bottom side where the thin regions exist are filled with a biocompatible, porous hydrogel 744, which smooths out the hills and valleys of the back side. This can be used in situations where a smooth surface for cell growth is desired on the back side of the membrane. Cells can grow on both sides of the membrane, as both sides have relatively smooth surfaces compared with the size of the cells to be grown.

(64) FIG. 8 is an image of cell growth on a porous membrane of the prior art, showing H9-RPE (retinal pigment epithelial) cells cultured on a porous parylene-C membrane with oxygen plasma treatment. Note the clumpy adherence of cells, which is undesirable.

(65) FIG. 9 is an image of cell growth on a semipermeable membrane in accordance with an embodiment. The cell morphology is very different from that in FIG. 8. In FIG. 9, the cells grow in a relatively flat monolayer, having access to plenty of nutrients through the membrane and able to discharge cell waste through the membrane. The cells proliferated well, became confluent after ten days of culture, and showed clear signs of polarization. The cells also have desirable hexagonal boundaries.

(66) FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating process 1000 in accordance with an embodiment. In operation 1001, a supporting film material is deposited on a first smooth substrate surface to form a supporting film. In operation 1002, lithography and etching are used to create a plurality of through perforations extending from a first side to an opposing, second side of the supporting film. In operation 1003, the supporting film with the through perforations is removed from the first smooth substrate surface. In operation 1004, the supporting film with the through perforations is attached to a second smooth substrate surface. In operation 1005, a 0.01- to 5-μm thin parylene layer is deposited over the supporting film sufficient to cover a bottom of each perforation of the supporting film to form a membrane with a smooth first side. In operation 1006, the membrane is removed from the second smooth substrate surface and readied for implantation.

(67) FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating process 1100 in accordance with an embodiment. In operation 1101, a membrane is provided, the membrane comprising: a supporting film having a plurality of through perforations extending from a first side to an opposing second side of the supporting film; and a 0.01- to 5-μm thin parylene layer covering an opening of each perforation of the supporting film wherein the covered openings of the perforations are even with a surface of the first side of the supporting film, thereby forming a substantially smooth surface on the first side. In operation 1102, the membrane is oriented such that the substantially smooth surface on the first side is positioned toward a cell culture, thereby reducing adherence of cells on the smooth side of the membrane. In operation 1103, molecules are diffused through the membrane.

(68) The invention has been described with reference to various specific and illustrative embodiments. However, it should be understood that many variations and modifications may be made while remaining within the spirit and scope of the following claims.