Plant cytochrome P450

Abstract

This disclosure relates to the isolation and sequencing of nucleic acid molecules that encode cytochrome P450 polypeptides from a Papaver somniferum cultivar; uses in the production of noscapine and identification of poppy cultivars that include genes that comprise said nucleic acid molecules.

Claims

1. A process for modifying one or more opiate alkaloids or opiate alkaloid intermediate metabolites, comprising: i) providing a microbial cell transformed with a nucleic acid molecule comprising: a) the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 or 4; b) a nucleotide sequence degenerate to the nucleotide sequence defined in (i) as a result of the genetic code; c) a nucleotide sequence comprising at least 90% sequence identity to the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 or 4, wherein said nucleotide sequence encodes a polypeptide having cytochrome P450 activity; d) a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11; or e) a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide comprising at least 90% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11, wherein said polypeptide has cytochrome P450 activity; ii) cultivating the microbial cell in a cell culture under conditions that modify one or more opiate alkaloids or opiate alkaloid intermediate metabolites; and optionally iii) isolating said opiate alkaloids or opiate alkaloid intermediate metabolites from the transformed microbial cell or cell culture.

2. The process according to claim 1, wherein said microbial cell is a bacterial cell.

3. The process according to claim 1, wherein said microbial cell is a yeast cell or fungal cell.

4. The process according to claim 3 wherein said yeast cell is a Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell.

5. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule comprises SEQ ID NO: 3 or 4.

6. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule consists of the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 or 4.

7. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule comprises a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11.

8. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule consists of a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11.

9. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule comprises a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide consisting of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11.

10. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule consists of a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide consisting of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10 or 11.

11. The process of claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid molecule is part of an expression vector adapted for expression in said microbial cell.

12. The process of claim 11, wherein said nucleic acid molecule is operably linked to a promoter for expression in said microbial cell.

13. The process of claim 12, wherein said promoter is an inducible promoter.

14. The process of claim 12 wherein said promoter is a constitutive promoter.

15. The process of claim 2, wherein said bacterial cell is an E. coli cell.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

(1) FIG. 1a (SEQ ID NO: 1) is nucleotide sequence of a cDNA that encodes PSCYP1, FIG. 1b (SEQ ID NO: 2) is nucleotide sequence, FIG. 1c (SEQ ID NO: 3) is nucleotide sequence of a cDNA that encodes PSCYP3; FIG. 1d (SEQ ID NO: 4) is nucleotide sequence of another embodiment of a cDNA that encodes PSCYP3;

(2) FIG. 2a illustrates the frequency of ESTs of the PSCYP1 gene in EST libraries derived from 454 sequencing of stem and capsule tissues from cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1. The 16 EST libraries were generated by pyrosequencing using cDNA libraries prepared from stems (S) and capsules (C) at two developmental stages ‘early harvest’ (EH, 1-3 days after petals had fallen off) and ‘late-harvest’ (LH, 4-6 days after petals had fallen off) from each of the four P. somniferum cultivars; FIG. 2b illustrates the frequency of ESTs of the PSCYP2 gene; FIG. 2c illustrates the frequency of ESTs of the PSCYP3 gene;

(3) FIG. 3a (SEQ ID NO: 5) is the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding PSCYP1; FIG. 3b (SEQ ID NO: 6) is the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding PSCYP2, FIG. 3c (SEQ ID NO: 7) is the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding PSCYP3;

(4) FIG. 4a (SEQ ID NO: 8) is the deduced amino acid sequence of PSCYP1; FIG. 4b (SEQ ID NO: 9) is the deduced amino acid sequence of PSCYP2; FIG. 4c (SEQ ID NO: 10) is the deduced amino acid sequence of PSCYP3; FIG. 4d (SEQ ID NO: 11) is the deduced amino acid sequence of PSCYP3;

(5) FIG. 5 illustrates that the PSCYP1 gene sequence is only present in cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and is absent from cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1;

(6) FIG. 6 illustrates that the PSCYP2 gene sequence is only present in cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and is absent from cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1;

(7) FIG. 7 illustrates that the PSCYP3 gene sequence is only present in cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and is absent from cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1;

(8) FIG. 8a is a tabular representation of the segregation of the PSCYP1 gene in an F2 mapping population derived from a parental cross of cultivars GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 along with the co-segregation of PSCYP1 and noscapine accumulation in individual F2 plants, FIG. 8b is the equivalent representation of the segregation of the PSCYP2 gene, FIG. 8c is the equivalent representation of the segregation of the PSCYP3 gene, the PSCYP3 genotyping assay failed on 16 samples (as indicated by the failure to amplify the internal positive control), these samples were excluded from the PSCYP3 co-segregation analysis;

(9) FIG. 9 illustrates a typical UPLC chromatogram for standard solution;

(10) FIG. 10 illustrates a typical UPLC chromatogram for a noscapine containing poppy variety;

(11) FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 12) is the 622 bases long part of the phytoene desaturase gene sequence amplified from cDNA of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1. The sequence stretch of 129 bases used to silence the phytoene desaturase gene is underlined;

(12) FIG. 12 (SEQ ID NO: 13) is the part of the cDNA sequence used to silence PSCYP2;

(13) FIG. 13 (SEQ ID NO: 14) is the part of the cDNA sequence used to silence PSCYP3;

(14) FIG. 14 shows the normalised peak area of putative tetrahydrocolumbamine in the UPLC chromatograms obtained from latex and mature capsules of plants that displayed the photo-bleaching phenotype after infection with the silencing constructs pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2, pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3 or pTRV2-PDS, respectively. The putative tetrahydrocolumbamine peak area obtained from uninfected plants is shown as well;

(15) FIG. 15 shows the normalised peak area of a putative secoberbine alkaloid (in the UPLC chromatograms obtained from latex and mature capsules of plants that displayed the photo-bleaching phenotype after infection with the silencing constructs pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2, pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3 or pTRV2-PDS, respectively. The putative secoberbine peak area obtained from uninfected plants is shown as well. The mass, molecular formula and fragmentation pattern of the compound is consistent with demethoxyhydroxymacrantaldehyde or demethoxymacrantoridine; and

(16) FIG. 16 shows the normalised peak area of another putative secoberbine alkaloid in the UPLC chromatograms obtained from latex and mature capsules of plants that displayed the photo-bleaching phenotype after infection with the silencing constructs pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2, pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3 or pTRV2-PDS, respectively. The putative secoberbine peak area obtained from uninfected plants is shown as well. The mass, molecular formula and fragmentation pattern of the compound is consistent with either demethoxynarcotinediol or narctololinol.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

(17) Generation of EST Libraries

(18) a) RNA Isolation and cDNA Synthesis

(19) Material was harvested from stems and capsules at two developmental stages from four poppy cultivars. RNA was prepared individually from five plants per cultivar, developmental stage and organ. The harvested material was ground in liquid nitrogen using a mortar and pestle. RNA was isolated from the ground stem or capsule preparations using a CTAB (hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide) based method as described in Chang et al. (1993) Plant Molecular Rep. 11: 113-116 with slight modifications (three extractions with chloroform:isoamylalcohol, RNA precipitation with Lithium chloride at −20° C. over night). RNA was quantified spectrophotometrically before pooling equal amounts of RNA from five plants per cultivar, stage and organ. The pooled samples underwent a final purification step using an RNeasy Plus MicroKit (Qiagen, Crawley, UK) to remove any remaining genomic DNA from the preparations. RNA was typically eluted in 30-100 μl water. cDNA was prepared using a SMART cDNA Library Construction Kit (Clontech, Saint-Germainen-Laye, France) according to the manufacturer's instructions but using SuperScript II Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK) for first strand synthesis. The CDSIII PCR primer was modified to: 5′ ATT CTA GAT CCR ACA TGT TTT TTT TTT TTT TTT TTT TVN 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 56) where R=A or G, V=A, C or G; N=A/T or C/G. cDNA was digested with MmeI (New England Biolabs Inc., Hitchin, UK) followed by a final purification using a QIAquick PCR Purification kit (Qiagen, Crawley, UK).

(20) b) cDNA Pyrosequencing

(21) The Roche 454 GS-FLX sequencing platform (Branford, Conn., USA) was used to perform pyrosequencing on cDNA samples prepared from the following materials for each of the four P. somniferum cultivars—GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1.

(22) 1. Stem, 1-3 days after petal fall (early harvest)

(23) 2. Stem, 4-6 days after petal fall (late harvest)

(24) 3. Capsule, 1-3 days after petal fall (early harvest)

(25) 4. Capsule, 4-6 days after petal fall (late harvest)

(26) c) Raw sequence analysis, contiguous sequence assembly and annotation

(27) The raw sequence datasets were derived from parallel tagged sequencing on the 454 sequencing platform (Meyer et al. (2008) Nature Protocols 3: 267-278). Primer and tag sequences were first removed from all individual sequence reads. Contiguous sequence assembly was only performed on sequences longer than 40 nucleotides and containing less than 3% unknown (N) residues. These high quality EST sequences were assembled into unique contiguous sequences with the CAPS Sequence Assembly Program (Huang and Madan (1999) Genome Research 9: 868-877), and the resulting contigs were annotated locally using the BLAST®2 program (Altschul et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402) against the non-redundant peptide database downloaded from the NCBI.

(28) d) Expression profiling of the cytochrome P450 genes

(29) The number of ESTs associated with the respective cytochrome P450 gene consensus sequences were counted in each of the 16 EST libraries. The values obtained were normalised on the basis of the total number of ESTs obtained per library.

(30) Amplification and Sequencing of the Cytochrome P450 Genes from GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 Genomic DNA.

(31) a) Genomic DNA Preparation

(32) DNA preparation: Leaf samples (30-50 mg) for DNA extraction were harvested from plants of GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2 GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1, GSK THEBAINE CVS1 grown in the glasshouse. DNA was extracted using Qiagen BioSprint 96. Extracted DNA was quantified using Hoescht 33258 and normalized to 10 ng/ul.

(33) b) Amplification and Sequencing of the Cytochrome P450 Genes from DNA of GSK NOSCAPINE

(34) CVS1Primers and primer combinations used for amplification of the respective cytochrome P450 genes from the extracted genomic DNA are shown in Table 1.

(35) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Sequences of forward and reverse primers used to amplify the cytochrome P450 genes from  genomic or cDNA cytochrome Oligonucleotide sequences P450 gene Primer name (5′ to 3′-) (SEQ ID NO:) PSCYP1 PSCYP1_F1 CTTGAGTCATGCCTTGATATGC (15) PSCYP1_F2 TTGATGAACGACAAGGAACCG (16) PSCYP1_F3 GCTACGAAAGATAATGGTGCAGC (17) PSCYP1_F4 TCGACAGCGCTTACGAACG (18) PSCYP1_F8 GAACCATTAAACACTTGAGTCATGC (19) PSCYP1_LA_R1 GCATTTGGTGCTTTCTTCCTCTTCTTTTTCTTATCAGTA (20) PSCYP1_R1 AGCAAACCATTCGTCCATCC (21) PSCYP1_R3 TGCAATTGAATTTAGCTCATCT (22) PSCYP1_R5 ATTCATGATTGTGACCTTTGTAATCC (23) PSCYP1_R7 TACGACAGGTTGCTAGCTTGG (24) PSCYP2 PSCYP2_F1 CAAAGAGTCAATCTGACTCAAGCTAGC (25) PSCYP2_F2 TGAAATGCCTGAGATCACTAAAATCG (26) PSCYP2_F3 TCAAACCCTGCTACTAACACTTACTTGC (27) PSCYP2_F4 TGTAAAGACACTTCATTGATGGGC (28) PSCYP2_R1 GAGATGATCAAGTGGTTTAACCATTCC (29) PSCYP2R2 CGAGTGCCCATGCAGTGG (30) PSCYP2_R3 CACTCCATCAGACACACAAGACC (31) PSCYP2_R4 GTAAACATTAATGATATTTGGAAGTTTAGATC (32) PSCYP2_R5 TTCGATTTGTGTAAACATTAATGATATTTGG (33) PSCYP3 PSCYP3_F1 GTTATCTTTGTCAAATGAATCCGTTGG (34) PSCYP3_F2 AATAATGGATCAGTCACGGCTTCC (35) PSCYP3_F3 ATGTGGAAAACGGTAAGCAAGTGG (36) PSCYP3_F4 AATCCATCAGATTTTCAACCAGAGAGG (37) PSCYP3_R1 ACGATTCTGTCATCATCATTTTCGC (38) PSCYP3_R2 AGTCGTGTATCGTTCGCTTAATGC (39) PSCYP3_LA_F2 GGCTTCCCGGAGATGACCCAGATTTTAT (40) PSCYP3_LA_F3 TTGTTATTTTCATGACTATTACCACCAGCTTCCTCTTA (41) PSCYP3_LA_F4 AGTGGAGGAGGCACAAAAGTTAGGATGGAC (42) PSCYP3_LA_F5 CCATGTCTGATAAATACGGGTCGGTGTTC (43) PSCYP3_LA_F6 TTGTTGATAAGGACGACTAAGAATAAGCAGAAGATA (44) PSCYP3_LA_R1 CATGCCTATCTATTTCCTCCCTTGCCCTC (45) PSCYP3_LA_R2 TGTCAGCCAACCATTCGTCCATCCTAAC (46) PSCYP3_LA_R3 TGTTCGATCACGTTGTCTCTTTTTGCCATAA (47) PSCYP3_LA_R4 TAACAATAAAAGTACTGATAATGGTGGTCGAAGGAGAA (48) PSCYP3_LA_R5 ATAATGGTGGTCGAAGGAGAATCAGTAATC (49)

(36) Primers were designed based on the respective cytochrome P450 contigs assembled from ESTs unique to cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1. The PSCYP1 and PSCYP2 contigs contained the complete open reading frame of as well as 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. PSCYP3 was represented by two contigs covering the 5′- and 3′-ends of the open reading frame with 200 bases from the centre of the open reading frame missing. This missing stretch of coding sequence was amplified and confirmed by amplification and sequencing from cDNA (prepared as described above) in addition to genomic DNA to determine the precise position and of intron 1 (FIG. 3c). Amplification were performed on pools of DNA comprising the DNA of at least four individuals and the primer combinations shown in Table 2.

(37) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Primer combinations used to amplify and Sanger-sequence the cytochrome P450 genes from genomic DNA Annealing Extension Sequencing primers used cytochrome Primer temperature time for Sanger sequencing of P450 gene combination [° C.] [s] purified PCR product PSCYP1 PSCYP1_F8/R3 68.5 60 PSCYP1_F3, PSCYP1_F8, PSCYP1_R3 PSCYP1_F2/R5 69.3 60 PSCYP1_F2, PSCYP1_F4, PSCYP1_F5, PSCYP1_R2, PSCYP1_R4, PSCYP1_R5 PSCYP1_F4/R7 69.8 60 PSCYP1_F4, PSCYP1_F6, PSCYP1_R4, PSCYP1_R7 PSCYP2 PSCYP2_F1/R5 61.7 60 PSCYP2_F1, PSCYP2_F2, PSCYP2_F3, PSCYP2_F4, PSCYP2_R1, PSCYP2_R2, PSCYP2_R5 PSCYP3 PSCYP3_F2/R1 66 60 PSCYP3_F2, PSCYP3_F4, PSCYP3_R1, PSCYP3_R2 PSCYP1_LA_R1/ See Long See Long PSCYP3_LA_F2, PSCYP_LA_R1 Amp PCR Amp PCR PSCYP3_ LA_F3, PSCYP3_ LA_F4, PSCYP3_ LA_F5, PSCYP3_ LA_F6, PSCYP3_LA_R1, PSCYP3_ LA_R2, PSCYP3_ LA_R3, PSCYP3_ LA_R4, PSCYP3_ LA_R5

(38) The PCR conditions were as follows:

(39) TABLE-US-00003 Reaction mixture: 5 × HF buffer (Finnzymes) 5 μl dNTPs (20 mM each) 0.25 μl Fwd primer (10 μM) 2.5 μl Rev primer (10 μM) 2.5 μl DNA (10 ng/μl) 5 μl Phusion Hot Start (Finnzymes) 0.25 μl dH.sub.2O 9.5 μl

(40) Reaction volume: 25 μl

(41) Phusion Hot Start from Finnzymes was purchased through New England Biolabs, (Bishops Stortford, UK).

(42) TABLE-US-00004 PCR program: initial denaturation 98° C. 1 min 30 cycles of: denaturation 98° C. 30 sec annealing temperature Table 2&3 30 sec extension 72° C. 40 sec final extension 72° C. 10 min incubation  4° C. storage

(43) The 5′-end and part of the promoter region of PSCYP3 was amplified from genomic DNA via a long range PCR set up using primers PSCYP1_LA_R1 and PSCYP3_LA R1:

(44) TABLE-US-00005 Long range PCR reaction mixture: 5 × LongAmp buffer (New England Biolabs) 10 μl dNTPs (10 mM each) 1.5 μl Fwd primer (10 μM) 2 μl Rev primer (10 μM) 2 μl gDNA (100 ng/μl) 2 μl LongAmp Taq (New England Biolabs) 2 μl dH.sub.2O 30.5 μl

(45) Reaction volume: 50 μl

(46) TABLE-US-00006 Long range PCR program initial denaturation 94° C. 30 sec 30 cycles of: denaturation 94° C. 30 sec annealing & extension 65° C. 13.5 min final extension 65° C. 10 min incubation  4° C. storage

(47) The products resulting from the various PCRs were purified using the Agencourt AMPure purification kit (Beckman Coulter LTD, Bromley, UK). 30-50 ng of the respective purified PCR products were subjected to Sanger-sequencing using the primers shown in Table 2 as sequencing primers. Since primer combination PSCYP1_F4/R7 resulted in amplification of a smaller, unspecific product in addition to the expected amplicon (see also FIG. 4d), the latter was excised and purified from the gel using QIAEX II Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) prior to sequencing.

(48) The amino acid sequences of the respective cytochrome P450s, predicted from the Sanger-sequence confirmed open reading frame sequences, were compared to protein sequences deposited in the non-redundant protein database using the Standard Protein BLAST® program (blastp).

(49) c) Analysis of Genomic DNA from GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 for the Presence of Cytochrome P450 Genes

(50) To investigate if the cytochrome P450 genes were present in all four cultivars, amplification from genomic DNA (pools of four individuals per cultivar) of GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 was performed in a series of overlapping fragments using primer combinations shown in Table 3. Exactly the same PCR conditions as described above to obtain the full length genomic sequences from GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 were used.=. 5 μl of each PCR reaction was resolved on 1% agarose alongside an appropriate size standards.

(51) TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 3 Primer combinations used to amplify the cytochrome P450 genes from genomic DNA Annealing Extension Expected cytochrome Primer temperature time fragment size P450 gene combination [° C.] [s] [bp] FIG. PSCYP1 PSCYP1_F1/R3 66 40 1051 FIG. 5a PSCYP1_F8/R3 68.5 60 1064 FIG. 5b PSCYP1_F2/R5 69.3 60 1400 FIG. 5c PSCYP1_F4/R7 69.8 60 ~1200 FIG. 5d PSCYP2 PSCYP2_F1/R1 61 60 596 FIG. 6a PSCYP2_F2/R2 61 60 596 FIG. 6b PSCYP2_F3/R3 61 60 603 FIG. 6c PSCYP2_F4/R4 61 60 475 FIG. 6d PSCYP3 PSCYP3_F1/R1 66 60 994 FIG. 7a PSCYP3_F2/R2 66 60 418 FIG. 7b PSCYP3_F3/R2 66 60 122 FIG. 7c PSCYP3_F3/R1 66 60 638 FIG. 7d

(52) Generation of a Mapping Population, Extraction and Analysis of Genomic DNA from Leaf Material Plus Extraction and Analysis of Alkaloids from Poppy Straw

(53) a) DNA Extraction from F2 Plants

(54) 40-50 mg of leaf tissue was harvested, in duplicate, from all poppy plants within the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1×GSK THEBAINE CVS1_F2 mapping population and parental plants) at the ‘small rosette’ growth stage (˜10 leaves present on each plant).

(55) Leaf tissue (40-50 mg wet weight) was collected into 1.2 ml sample tubes in 8×12 format (Part Number 1760-00, Scientific Specialties Inc, 130 Thurman St, Lodi, Calif. 95240 USA), closed with strip caps (Part Number 1702-00, Scientific Specialties Inc) and shipped to the AGRF (Australian Genome Research Facility) Adelaide on Techni-Ice dry Ice packs by overnight courier.

(56) On receipt, strip caps were removed and a 3 mm tungsten carbide bead was added to each tube (Part Number 69997, Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany). Samples were placed at −80° C. (Freezer model; Sanyo MDF-U73V) for a minimum of two hours prior to freeze-drying for 18 hr (Christ Model Alpha 2-4 LSC).

(57) Following freeze drying, tubes were sealed with fresh strip caps (as above), and samples were powdered by bead-milling (Model “Tissue Lyser”, Part Number 85300; Qiagen) at 3,000 RPM for 2×60 sec cycles separated by plate inversion. DNA extraction was performed using the “Nucleospin Plant II” system (Macherey-Nagel, GmbH & Co. KG Neumann-Neander-StraBe 6-8, 52355 Duren, Germany).

(58) Cell lysis was performed using the supplied Buffer Set PL2/3. The manufacturer's protocol for centrifugal extraction was followed (Centrifuge model 4-K 15; Sigma Laborzentrifugen GmbH, 37520 Osterode am Harz, Germany).

(59) The recovered DNA (12/96 samples, one sample per plate column) was checked for quality and quantity by ultra violet spectroscopy (Model Nanodrop-8000; NanoDrop products, 3411 Silverside Rd, Bancroft Building; Wilmington, Del. 19810, USA) at 230, 260 and 280 nM.

(60) b) Genotyping of F2 DNA Samples for the Presence of Absence of the Cytochrome P450 Genes

(61) DNA samples from a total of 275 F2 plants were genotyped for the presence or absence of PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3, respectively, by amplifying a short fragment of each of the genes. In order to fluorescently label the resulting PCR fragments, the forward primers carried a VIC-label (Applied Biosystems, UK) at their 5′-prime ends. Fragment analyses were carried out on the 96-capillary electrophoresis 3730×1 DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, UK) according to the manufacturer's instructions. In addition to the respective cytochrome P450 fragments, an internal positive control was amplified in each PCR assay in order to distinguish lack of amplification due to absence of the cytochrome P450 genes in the DNA samples from lack of amplification caused by PCR assay failures. Samples were the PCR assay had failed were excluded from the co-segragation analyses of the genes with the noscapine trait.

(62) The following primers were used (primer sequences are shown in Table 1; forward primers were 5′-end-labeled with VIC):

(63) PSCYP1: VIC-PSCYP1_F3/PSCYP1_R2; amplified fragment size: 166 bp

(64) PSCYP2: VIC-PSCYP2_F2/PSCYP2_R1; amplified fragment size: 226 bp

(65) PSCYP3: VIC-PSCYP3_F3/PSCYP3_R1; amplified fragment size: 638 bp

(66) The PSCYP1-fragment was amplified with the following PCR conditions:

(67) TABLE-US-00008 Reaction mixture: 5 × GoTaq Buffer (Promega) 2 μl dNTPs (2.5 mM mix) 0.5 μl MgCl.sub.2 (25 mM) 0.6 μl Forward primer (10 μM) 0.5 μl Reverse primer (10 μM) 0.5 μl gDNA (5 ng/μl) 2 μl GoTaq (Promega) 0.2 μl dH.sub.2O 3.7 μl

(68) Reaction volume: 10 μl

(69) TABLE-US-00009 PCR program: initial denaturation 94° C. 1 min 30 cycles of: denaturation 94° C. 30 sec annealing temperature 62° C. 30 sec extension 72° C. 20-30 sec final extension 72° C. 5 min incubation  4° C. storage

(70) The PSCYP2- and PSCYP3-fragments were amplified with the following PCR conditions:

(71) TABLE-US-00010 Reaction mixture: 5 × Type-it multiplex PCR mix (Qiagen) 5 μl Forward primer (10 μM) 0.5 μl Reverse primer (10 μM) 0.5 μl gDNA (5 ng/μl) 2 μl dH.sub.2O 2 μl

(72) Reaction volume: 10 μl

(73) TABLE-US-00011 PCR program: initial denaturation 95° C. 15 min 30 cycles of: denaturation 95° C. 15 sec annealing temperature 60° C. 30 sec extension 72° C. 30 sec final extension 72° C. 5 min incubation  4° C. storage

(74) c) Poppy Straw Analysis

(75) Poppy capsules were harvested by hand from the mapping population once capsules had dried to approximately 10% moisture on the plant. The seed was manually separated from the capsule, and capsule straw material (Poppy Straw) was then shipped to the GSK extraction facility in Port Fairy, Australia.

(76) The poppy straw samples were then ground in a Retsch Model MM04 ball mill into a fine powder. Two gram samples of ground poppy straw were then weighed accurately (2±0.003 g) and extracted in 50 mL of a 10% acetic acid solution. The extraction suspension was shaken on an orbital shaker at 200 rpm for a minimum of 10 minutes then filtered to provide a clear filtrate. The final filtrate was passed through a 0.22 μm filter prior to analysis.

(77) The solutions were analysed using a Waters Acquity UPLC system fitted with a Waters Acquity BEH C18 column, 2.1 mm×100 mm with 1.7 micron packing. The mobile phase used a gradient profile with eluent A consisting of 0.1% Trifluoroacetic acid in deionised water and eluent B consisting of 100% Acetonitrile. The mobile phase gradient conditions used are as listed in Table 2, the gradient curve number as determined using a Waters Empower chromatography software package. The flow rate was 0.6 mL per minute and the column maintained at 45 C. The injection volume was 14 injection volume and the alkaloids were detected using a UV detector at 285 nm.

(78) The loss on drying (LOD) of the straw was determined by drying in an oven at 105 degrees centrigrade for 3 hours.

(79) Gradient Flow Program

(80) TABLE-US-00012 TIME Flow (minutes) % Eluent A % Eluent B (mL/min) Curve No 0.00 95.0 5.0 0.60 INITIAL 0.80 90.0 10.0 0.60 6 3.40 75.0 25.0 0.60 3 3.60 95.0 5.0 0.60 6 4.00 95.0 5.0 0.60 11

(81) Alkaloid concentrations for morphine, codeine, thebaine, oripavine and noscapine were determined by comparison with standard solutions and the results calculated on a dry weight basis.

(82) Typical retention times are as follows:

(83) TABLE-US-00013 Compound Retention Time (minutes) Morphine 1.14 Pseudo morphine 1.26 Codeine 1.69 Oripavine 1.80 10-Hydroxythebaine 2.32 Thebaine 2.53 Noscapine 3.16

(84) Virus Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) of PSCYP3 and PSCYP3

(85) a) Generation of Silencing Constructs

(86) A tobacco rattle virus (TRV) based virus induced gene silencing system developed and described by Liu et al. (2002) Plant J. 30(4): 415-429 was used to investigate the gene function of PSCYP2 and PSCYP3. DNA fragments selected for silencing of PSCYP2 and PSCYP3, respectively, were amplified by PCR and cloned into the silencing vector pTRV2 (GenBank accession no. AF406991; Liu et al. (2002) Plant J. 30(4): 415-429). They were linked to a 129 bp-long fragment of the P. somniferum phytoene desaturase gene (PsPDS) in order to silence the respective cytochrome P450 genes and PsPDS simultaneously. Plants displaying the photo-bleaching phenotype that resulted from silencing of PsPDS (Hileman et al. (2005) Plant J. 44(2): 334-341) were identified as plants successfully infected with the respective silencing constructs and selected for analysis.

(87) Generation of the pTRV2-PDS construct: A 622 bp fragment (FIG. 11) of PsPDS was amplified from cDNA prepared from GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 as described above using primers ps_pds_F and ps_pds_R4 (Table 4).

(88) TABLE-US-00014 TABLE 4 Primers used to amplify sequences selected for virus induced gene silencing Oligonucleotide sequences (5′- to 3′-) (SEQ ID NO:) (in capitals: gene-specific Target sequence: in gene lower case: added to be sequence; underlined: silenced Primer name restriction sites) PS ps_pds_F GAGGTGTTCATTGCCATGTCAA (50) PHYTOENE DESATURASE ps_pds_R4 GTTTCGCAAGCTCCTGCATAGT (51) PSCYP2 VIGS_PSCYP2_F aaactcaaaaaacttATGATCATGAGT AACTTATGGA (52) VIGS_PSCYP2 R aaaggtaccCCAACAGGCCATTCCGTT G (53) PSCYP3 VIGS_PSCYP3_F aaactcaaaaaacttTAGGAGGGTATG TCCGGC (54) VIGS_PSCYP3_R aaaggtaccTTAACTCCGCCTCGGCTC C (55)

(89) The sequence of the forward primer was based on a 412 bp long contig derived from the EST-libraries which shared 99% identity at its 3′ end with the partial coding sequence of the P. somniferum phytoene desaturase (GenBank accession no. DQ116056). The sequence of the reverse primer was designed based on the DQ116056 sequence. The PCR conditions were identical to those described above for the amplification of the cytochrome P450 genes from genomic sequence except that the annealing step was carried out at 70° C. and the extension time was increased to 60 seconds.

(90) Sau3AI digestion of the PCR-fragment yielded among others two fragments (280 bp and 129 bp in length) that carried BamHI-compatible sticky ends at both, their 5′ and 3′ ends. The 129 bp long fragment (underlined stretch in FIG. 11) was cloned into the BamHI site of the pTRV2 vector. Because Sau3AI was used to produce BamHI-compatible sticky ends, the BamHI site at the 5-end of the PDS-insert was abolished in the pYL156-PDS construct. However, the BamHI recognition site at its 3′-end was kept intact due to the nature of the PDS-insert sequence.

(91) A sequence-confirmed pTRV2-PDS construct, with the 129 bp fragment in sense orientation, was subsequently used as a vector for generating the PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 silencing constructs, and served as a control in the VIGS experiments.

(92) Generation of silencing constructs for PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 (pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2 and pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3): The DNA fragments selected for silencing PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 were amplified from cDNA of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 prepared as described above with the use of the primer sequences shown in Table 4. Additional restriction sites (forward primers: XhoI and HindIII for forward primers; KpnI site for reverse primers) were added to the gene-specific primers in order to facilitate cloning. The amplification conditions were as described above for amplifying the PDS-fragment except that the annealing temperatures were 60.9° C. for PSCYP2 and 66° C. for PSCYP3 and the extension time was 30 seconds.

(93) The sequence selected to silence PSCYP2 (FIG. 12) and PSCYP3 (FIG. 12), respectively, were cloned into pTV00 (Ratcliff et al. (2001) Plant J. 25(2): 237-245) using HindIII and KpnI and subcloned into pTRV2-PDS using BamHI and KpnI. Sequence-confirmed pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2 and pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3 constructs were used in the VIGS experiments.

(94) b) Transformation of Constructs into Agrobacterium tumefaciens

(95) The propagation of the silencing constructs was carried out with the E. coli strain DH5a and, subsequently, the respective silencing constructs, as well as pTRV1 (Gen Bank accession no. AF406990; Liu et al. (2002) Plant J. 30(4): 415-429) were independently transformed into electrocompetent Agrobacterium tumefaciens (strain GV3101).

(96) c) Infiltration of Plants

(97) Overnight liquid cultures of A. tumefaciens containing each silencing construct were used to inoculate Luria-Bertani (LB) medium containing 10 mM MES, 20 μM acetosyringone and 50 μg/ml kanamycin. Cultures were maintained at 28° C. for 24 hours, harvested by centrifugation at 3000 g for 20 min, and resuspended in infiltration solution (10 mM MES, 200 μM acetosyringone, 10 mM MgCl2) to an OD600 of 2.5. A. tumefaciens harbouring the respective constructs (pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP2, pTRV2-PDS-PSCYP3 or, as a control, pTRV2-PDS) were each mixed 1:1 (v/v) with A. tumefaciens containing pTRV1, and incubated for two hours at 22° C. prior to infiltration. Two weeks old seedlings of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 grown under standard greenhouse conditions (22° C., 16h photoperiod), with emerging first leaves, were infiltrated as described by Hagel and Facchini (2010) Nat. Chem. Biol. 6: 273-275.

(98) d) Latex and Capsule Analysis of Silenced Plants

(99) Leaf latex of infiltrated opium poppy plants displaying photo-bleaching as a visual marker for successful infection and silencing was analysed when the first flower buds emerged (˜7 week old plants). Plants showing a similar degree of photo-bleaching of leaves were selected for analysis.

(100) Latex was collected from cut petioles, with a single drop dispersed into 500 μL 10% acetic acid. This was diluted 10× in 1% acetic acid to give an alkaloid solution in 2% acetic acid for further analysis. Capsules were harvested by hand from glasshouse-grown from the same plants used for latex analysis and single capsules were ground in a Retsch Model MM04 ball mill into a fine powder. Ten mg samples of ground poppy straw were then weighed accurately (10±0.1 mg) and extracted in 0.5 mL of a 10% acetic acid solution with gentle shaking for 1 h at room temperature. Samples were then clarified by centrifugation and a 50 μL subsample diluted 10× in 1% acetic acid to give an alkaloid solution in 2% acetic acid for further analysis.

(101) All solutions were analysed using a Waters Acquity UPLC system fitted with a Waters Acquity BEH C18 column, 2.1 mm×100 mm with 1.7 micron packing. The mobile phase used a gradient profile with eluent A consisting of 10 mM ammonium bicarbonate pH 10.2 and eluent B methanol. The mobile phase gradient conditions used are as listed in Table 1, with a linear gradient. The flow rate was 0.5 mL per minute and the column maintained at 60° C. The injection volume was 2 μL and eluted peaks were ionised in positive APCI mode and detected within −3 ppm mass accuracy using a Thermo LTQ-Orbitrap. The runs were controlled by Thermo Xcalibur software.

(102) Gradient Flow Program:

(103) TABLE-US-00015 TIME Flow (minutes) % Eluent A % Eluent B (mL/min) 0.0 98.0 2.0 0.50 0.2 98.0 2.0 0.50 0.5 60.0 40 0.50 4.0 20.0 80.0 0.50 4.5 20.0 0.0 0.50

(104) All data analysis was carried out in R. Putative alkaloid peaks were quantified by their pseudomolecular ion areas using custom scripts. Peak lists were compiled and any peak-wise significant differences between samples were identified using 1-way ANOVA with p-values adjusted using the Bonferroni correction for the number of unique peaks in the data set. For any peak-wise comparisons with adjusted p-values <0.05, Tukey's HSD test was used to identify peaks that were significantly different between any given sample and the control. Alkaloids were identified by comparing exact mass and retention time values to those of standards. Where standards were not available, neutral exact masses were used to generate molecular formulae hits within elemental constraints of C=1:100, H=1:200, O=0:200, N=0:3 and mass accuracy <20 ppm. The hit with the lowest ppm error within these constraints was used to assign a putative formula.

EXAMPLE 1

(105) Assembly of full length PSCYP1 cDNA sequence from ESTs and confirmation by sequencing from genomic DNA.

(106) The full length open reading frame of PSCYP1 (FIG. 1a) was assembled from ESTs derived from the 454 sequencing platform using the CAPS sequence assembly programme. The full length cDNA sequence was confirmed by direct amplification of the full length cDNA from GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 genomic DNA.

EXAMPLE 2

(107) PSCYP1 is Exclusively Expressed in the Noscapine Producing Papaver somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(108) FIG. 2a shows the normalized distribution of ESTs associated with the PSCYP1 consensus sequence across each of the 16 EST libraries prepared from two organs (capsules and stems) at two developmental stages (early and late harvest) from each of the four poppy cultivars, GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1. ESTs corresponding to PSCYP1 were exclusively found in libraries derived from the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 (FIG. 2a). PSCYP1 expression was strongest in stem tissue shortly after flowering.

EXAMPLE 3

(109) PCR-Amplification of PSCYP1 from Genomic DNA of the Four Papaver somniferum Cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1.

(110) PCR-amplifications of PSCYP1 fragments were performed on genomic DNA from the four poppy cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 using the primer combinations shown in Table 2 and 3.

(111) FIG. 5 shows the PCR-amplification of PSCYP1 from genomic DNA of the four Papaver somniferum cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1;

(112) The amplification from genomic DNA yielded the gene sequence shown in FIG. 3a.

EXAMPLE 4

(113) The Putative Protein Encoded by PSCYP1 Shows Highest Sequence Similarity to a Cytochrome P450 from Coptis Japonica and Thalictrum flavum.

(114) The closest homologues to the putative protein encoded by the PSCYP1 open reading frame (FIG. 4a) are a cytochrome P450 from Coptis japonica (GenBank accession no. BAF98472.1, 46% identical at amino acid level). The closest homologue with an assignment to a cytochrome P450 subfamily is CYP82C4 from Arabidopsis lyrata (GenBank accession no. XP_002869304.1, 44% identical at amino acid level).

EXAMPLE 5

(115) PSCYP1 is Only Present in the Genome of the Noscapine Producing P. somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(116) The transcribed region covered by the ESTs contained the complete coding sequence of PSCYP1 (including 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions), which was used for primer design (Table 1) to amplify the PSCYP1 gene from genomic DNA in a series of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Upon testing a subset of the primer combinations (Table 3) on genomic DNA samples from all four cultivars it was discovered that the PSCYP1 fragments could only be amplified from genomic DNA of the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 but not from genomic DNA of the predominantly morphine (GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE) or thebaine (GSK THEBAINE CVS1) producing cultivars (FIG. 5). The PCR amplifications were performed on pools of genomic DNA comprising DNA from four individuals per cultivar. This discovery explains why the PSCYP1 is only expressed in the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 cultivar and is absent from the transcriptome of the other three cultivars.

EXAMPLE 6

(117) Assembly of Full Length PSCYP2 cDNA Sequence from ESTs and Confirmation by Sequencing from Genomic DNA.

(118) The full length open reading frame of PSCYP2 (FIG. 1b) was assembled from ESTs derived from the 454 sequencing platform using the CAPS sequence assembly programme. The full length cDNA sequence was confirmed by direct amplification of the full length cDNA from GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 genomic DNA.

EXAMPLE 7

(119) PSCYP2 is Exclusively Expressed in the Noscapine Producing Papaver somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(120) FIG. 2b shows the normalized distribution of ESTs associated with the PSCYP2 consensus sequence across each of the 16 EST libraries prepared from two organs (capsules and stems) at two developmental stages (early and late harvest) from each of the four poppy cultivars, GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1. ESTs corresponding to PSCYP2 were exclusively found in libraries derived from the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 (FIG. 2b). PSCYP2 expression was strongest in stem tissue shortly after flowering.

EXAMPLE 8

(121) PCR-Amplification of PSCYP2 from Genomic DNA of the Four Papaver somniferum Cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1.

(122) PCR-amplifications of PSCYP2 fragments were performed on genomic DNA from the four poppy cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 using the primer combinations shown in Table 2 and 3. FIG. 6 shows the PCR-amplification of PsCYP2 from genomic DNA of the four Papaver somniferum cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1;

(123) The amplification from genomic DNA yielded the gene sequence shown in FIG. 3b.

EXAMPLE 9

(124) The Putative Protein Encoded by PSCYP2 Shows Highest Sequence Similarity to a Cytochrome P450 from Coptis Japonica and Thalictrum flavum.

(125) The closest homologues to the putative protein encoded by the PSCYP2 open reading frame (FIG. 4b) are cytochrome P450s annotated as stylopine synthase from Argemone mexicana (GenBank accession no. ABR14721, identities: 366/475 (78%)) and from Papaver somniferum (GenBank accession no. ADB89214, identities=373/491 (76%)). The sequence comparisons were carried out using NCBI's ‘blastp’ algorithm (method: compositional matrix adjust).

EXAMPLE 10

(126) PSCYP2 is Only Present in the Genome of the Noscapine Producing P. somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(127) The transcribed region covered by the ESTs contained the complete coding sequence of PSCYP2 (including 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions), which was used for primer design (Table 1) to amplify the PSCYP2 gene from genomic DNA in a series of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Upon testing a subset of the primer combinations (Table 3) on genomic DNA samples from all four cultivars it was discovered that the PSCYP2 fragments could only be amplified from genomic DNA of the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 but not from genomic DNA of the predominantly morphine (GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE) or thebaine (GSK THEBAINE CVS1) producing cultivars (FIG. 6). The PCR amplifications were performed on pools of genomic DNA comprising DNA from four individuals per cultivar. This discovery explains why the PSCYP2 is only expressed in the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 cultivar and is absent from the transcriptome of the other three cultivars.

EXAMPLE 11

(128) Assembly of the Full Length PSCYP3 cDNA Sequence from ESTs and by Sequencing from cDNA and Genomic DNA.

(129) Two possible full length open reading frames of PSCYP3 (FIGS. 1c and 1d) were partially assembled from ESTs derived from the 454 sequencing platform using the CAPS sequence assembly programme. The ESTs covered the 5′ and 3′ area of the sequence with a stretch of 200 bases missing. The missing stretch of bases was obtained by direct amplification and sequencing from cDNA of the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1. The full length sequences were further confirmed by direct amplification and sequencing of PSCYP3 from genomic DNA of the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1. Two possible ATG start codons were identified. Since they were in frame and adjacent to each other the resulting full length open reading frame sequences shown in FIGS. 1c and 1d, respectively, differ only by one ATG codon at the 5′-terminus.

EXAMPLE 12

(130) PSCYP3 is Exclusively Expressed in the Noscapine Producing Papaver somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(131) FIG. 2c shows the normalized distribution of ESTs associated with the PSCYP3 consensus sequence across each of the 16 EST libraries prepared from two organs (capsules and stems) at two developmental stages (early and late harvest) from each of the four poppy cultivars, GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1. ESTs corresponding to PSCYP3 were exclusively found in libraries derived from the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 (FIG. 2c). PSCYP3 expression was strongest in stem tissue shortly after flowering.

EXAMPLE 13

(132) PCR-Amplification of PSCYP3 from Genomic DNA of the Four Papaver somniferum Cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1.

(133) PCR-amplifications of PSCYP3 fragments were performed on genomic DNA from the four poppy cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 using the primer combinations shown in Table 2 and 3. FIG. 7 shows the PCR-amplification of PSCYP3 from genomic DNA of the four Papaver somniferum cultivars GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE CVS2, GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1; The amplification from genomic DNA yielded the gene sequence shown in FIG. 3c.

EXAMPLE 14

(134) The Putative Protein Encoded by PSCYP3 Shows Highest Sequence Similarity to Protopine 6-Hydroxylase from Eschscholzia californica.

(135) The closest homologue to the putative proteins encoded by the two possible PSCYP3 open reading frames (FIGS. 1c and 1d) is a cytochrome P450s annotated as protopine 6-hydroxylase from Eschscholzia californica (GenBank accession no. BAK20464, identities: 228/522 (44%)) and a cytochrome P450 from Coptis japonica (Gen Bank accession no. BAF98472, identities=230/539 (43%)). The sequence comparisons were carried out using NCBI's ‘blastp’ algorithm (method: compositional matrix adjust).

EXAMPLE 15

(136) PSCYP3 is Only Present in the Genome of the Noscapine Producing P. somniferum Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1.

(137) The transcribed region covered by the ESTs contained the partial coding sequence of PSCYP3 (including 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions), which was used for primer design (Table 1) to amplify the PSCYP3 gene from genomic DNA in a series of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Upon testing a subset of the primer combinations on genomic DNA samples from all four cultivars it was discovered that the PsCYP3 fragments could only be amplified from genomic DNA of the noscapine producing cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 but not from genomic DNA of the predominantly morphine (GSK MORPHINE CVS1, GSK MORPHINE) or thebaine (GSK THEBAINE CVS1) producing cultivars (FIG. 7). The PCR amplifications were performed on pools of genomic DNA comprising DNA from four individuals per cultivar using the primer combinations shown in Table 3. This discovery explains why the PSCYP3 is only expressed in the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 cultivar and is absent from the transcriptome of the other three cultivars.

EXAMPLE 16

(138) Segregation Analysis of PSCYP1 and Noscapine Production in an F2 Mapping Population Derived from a Cross Between GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1.

(139) Cultivar GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1, which produces noscapine, was cross pollinated with cultivar GSK THEBAINE CVS1 which produces negligible amounts of noscapine. Resulting F1 plants were grown to maturity and F2 seed collected. Two hundred and seventy five F2 individuals from the GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 and GSK THEBAINE CVS1 10 cross were grown to maturity in the field. Leaf material was collected from each individual and used for DNA extraction and analysis. Mature capsules were collected from each individual for alkaloid extraction and analysis.

(140) FIGS. 8a-c present the results of the F2 mapping population analysis. The PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 genes are linked and segregate with noscapine production in the F2 mapping population. The data demonstrate that in the mapping population GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 levels are present in 61 out of 275 individual F2 plants. The PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 gene were detected in all of the noscapine containing plants thus confirming that the PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 genes and noscapine production are linked. Furthermore, all plants in which the PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 genes were not detected lacked noscapine (The genotyping assay for PSCYP3 failed on 16 samples as indicated by the failure of the internal positive control included in the assay; since these samples were excluded from the segregation analysis of PSCYP3 with the noscapine trait). These data are highly statistically relevant and confirm that the PSCYP1, PSCYP2 and PSCYP3 genes are required for production of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 levels of noscapine.

EXAMPLE 17

(141) Putative Tetrahydrocolumbamine Accumulates in PSCYP2-Silenced Plants

(142) Virus induced gene silencing led to the accumulation of putative tetrahydrocolumbamine in both latex and mature capsules of PSCYP2-silenced plants but not of PSCYP3-silenced plants, PDS-silenced control plants or uninfected plants of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 (FIG. 14). The data suggest that PSCYP2 encodes a methylenedioxy-bridge forming enzyme which converts tetrahydrocolumbamine to canadine thus leading to the formation of the methylenedioxybridge present at C-3a′/C-9a′ of the isoquinoline moiety of noscapine.

EXAMPLE 18

(143) Putative Secoberbines Accumulates in PSCYP3-Silenced Plants

(144) Virus induced gene silencing led to the accumulation of putative secoberbine alkaloids in both latex and mature capsules of PSCYP3-silenced plants but not of PSCYP2-silenced plants, PDS-silenced control plants or uninfected plants of GSK NOSCAPINE CVS1 (FIGS. 15 and 16). The mass, assigned molecular formula (C21H23N06) and fragmentation pattern of the putative secoberbine shown to accumulate in FIG. 15 is consistent with either demethoxyhydroxymacrantaldehyde or demethoxymacrantoridine. Both of these secoberbines lack a methoxy-group at the carbon of the isoquinoline moiety which is equivalent to the C-4′ of noscapine. The mass, assigned molecular formula (C21H25N06) and fragmentation pattern of the second compound found to accumulate in PSCYP3-silenced plants (FIG. 16) is consistent with two secoberbines, demethoxynarcotinediol and narcotolinol, respectively. The former compound lacks the methoxy-group at the carbon equivalent to C-4′ of noscapine. Together the data suggest that the protein encoded by PSCYP3 hydroxylates the isoquinoline moiety of secoberbines at a position equivalent to C-4′ of noscapine thus enabling the formation of the methoxy-group present in noscapine at this position by subsequent O-methylation. The respective methoxylated derivatives (methoxylated at the carbon equivalent to C-4′ of noscapaine) of the putative secoberbines accumulating in PSCYP3-silenced plants have been found in various Papaver species producing noscapine (Sariyar and Phillipson (1977) Phytochem. 16: 2009-2013; Sariyar and Shamma (1986) Phytochem. 25: 2403-2406, Sariyar (2002) Pure Appl. Chem. 74: 557-574). They have been implicated, on structural grounds, in the biosynthetic conversion of protoberberines into phthalideisoquinolines such as noscapine (Sariyar and Shamma (1986) Phytochem. 25: 2403-2406, Sariyar and Phillipson (1977) Phytochem. 16: 2009-2013).