Method and cell line for production of phytocannabinoids and phytocannabinoid analogues in yeast

Abstract

A method and cell line for producing phytocannabinoids and phytocannabinoid analogues in yeast. The method applies, and the cell line includes, a yeast cell transformed with a polyketide synthase CDS and a cytosolic prenyltransferase CDS. The polyketide synthase enzyme catalyzes synthesis of olivetol or methyl-olivetol, and may include Cannabis sativa olivetolic acid synthase or Dictyostelium discoideum polyketide synthase (“DiPKS”). The yeast cell may be modified to include a phosphopantethienyl transferase for increased activity of DiPKS. The yeast cell may be modified to mitigate mitochondrial acetaldehyde catabolism for increasing malonyl-CoA available for synthesizing olivetol or methyl-olivetol. The prenyltransferase enzyme catalyzes synthesis of cannabigerol or a cannabigerol analogue, and may include an αββα cytosolic prenyltransferase enzyme from Streptomyces sp CL190. The yeast cell may be modified to mitigate depletion of geranyl pyrophosphate for increasing available geranyl pyrophosphate for prenylation.

Claims

1. A method of producing phytocannabinoids or phytocannabinoid analogues, the method comprising the steps of: (i) providing a yeast cell comprising a first polynucleotide comprising bases 523 to 9966 of SEQ ID NO: 38, coding for a polyketide synthase enzyme from D. discoideum comprising a mutation at G1516R (DiPKS.sup.G1516R) that reduces activity at an active site of a C-Met domain as compared to wild type DiPKS from D. discoideum, and a second polynucleotide coding for a cytosolic prenyltransferase enzyme, wherein: the polyketide synthase enzyme produces at least one precursor chemical from malonyl-CoA, the precursor chemical having structure I: ##STR00004## wherein, on structure I, R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 carbons, R2 is H, carboxyl, or methyl, and R3 is H, carboxyl, or methyl; the polyketide synthase enzyme is not native to C. sativa; and the cytosolic prenyltransferase enzyme prenylates the at least one precursor chemical, providing at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue; and (ii) propagating the yeast cell under suitable conditions to provide a yeast cell culture, thereby producing phytocannabinoids or phytocannabinoid analogues from the at least one precursor chemical.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 3 carbons, R2 is H, and R3 is H.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 3 carbons, R2 is carboxyl, and R3 is H.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 3 carbons, R2 is methyl, and R3 is H.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 3 carbons, R2 is carboxyl, and R3 is methyl.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R2 is a methyl group and the at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue comprises a methylated phytocannabinoid analogue.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein: the DiPKS polyketide synthase enzyme mutation prevents methylation of the at least one precursor chemical, resulting in the at least one precursor chemical having a hydrogen R2 group and a hydrogen R3 group; and the at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue comprises a decarboxylated phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein the yeast cell comprises a phosphopantetheinyl transferase polynucleotide coding for a phosphopantetheinyl transferase enzyme that increases the activity of the DiPKS polyketide synthase enzyme.

9. The method of claim 8 wherein the phosphopantetheinyl transferase comprises NpgA phosphopantetheinyl transferase enzyme from A. nidulans.

10. The method of claim 9 wherein the phosphopantetheinyl transferase polynucleotide comprises a coding sequence for the NpgA phosphopantetheinyl transferase enzyme from A. nidulans with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 1170 to 2201 of SEQ ID NO: 10.

11. The method of claim 1 wherein the polyketide synthase enzyme comprises an active site for synthesizing the at least one precursor chemical from malonyl-CoA without a longer chain ketyl-CoA.

12. The method of claim 11 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a pentyl group at R1 and the at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue comprises a pentyl-phytocannabinoid or methylated pentyl-phytocannabinoid analogue.

13. The method of claim 12 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises at least one of olivetol olivetolic acid, methyl-olivetol, or methyl-olivetolic acid, and the at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue comprises at least one of CBG, CBGa, meCBG, or meCBGa.

14. The method of claim 1 wherein the cytosolic prenyltransferase enzyme comprises an NphB prenyltransferase enzyme from Streptomyces sp CL190.

15. The method of claim 14 wherein the second polynucleotide comprises a coding sequence for NphB prenyltransferase enzyme from Streptomyces sp CL190 with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 987 to 1913 of SEQ ID NO: 44.

16. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 5 carbons, R2 is H, and R3 is H.

17. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 5 carbons, R2 is carboxyl, and R3 is H.

18. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 5 carbons, R2 is methyl, and R3 is H.

19. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one precursor chemical comprises a precursor chemical wherein R1 is an alkyl group with a chain length of 5 carbons, R2 is carboxyl, and R3 is methyl.

20. The method of claim 1 wherein the yeast cell comprises a genetic modification to increase available geranylpyrophosphate.

21. The method of claim 20 wherein the genetic modification comprises an inactivation of the Erg20 enzyme.

22. The method of claim 21 wherein the yeast cell comprises an Erg20 polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Erg20.sup.K197E with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by SEQ ID NO: 3.

23. The method of claim 1 wherein the yeast cell comprises a genetic modification to increase available malonyl-CoA.

24. The method of claim 23 wherein the genetic modification comprises increased expression of Maf1.

25. The method of claim 24 wherein the yeast cell comprises a Maf1 polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Maf1 with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 936 to 2123 of SEQ ID NO: 8.

26. The method of claim 23 wherein the genetic modification comprises a modification for increasing cytosolic expression of an aldehyde dehydrogenase and an acetyl-CoA synthase.

27. The method of claim 26 wherein the yeast cell comprises an Acs polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Acs.sup.L641P from S. enterica with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 3938 to 5893 of SEQ ID NO: 4, and a coding sequence for Ald6 from S. cerevisiae with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 1494 to 2999 of SEQ ID NO 4.

28. The method of claim 23 wherein the genetic modification comprises a modification for increasing malonyl-CoA synthase activity.

29. The method of claim 28 wherein the yeast cell comprises an Acc1 polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Acc1.sup.S659A; S1157A from S. cerevisiae.

30. The method of claim 29 wherein the Acc1 polynucleotide includes a coding sequence for the Acc1.sup.S659A; 51157A enzyme, with a portion thereof having a primary structure with between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein portion coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 9 to 1716 of SEQ ID NO: 7, Acc1.sup.S659A; S1157A.

31. The method of claim 28 wherein the yeast cell comprises an Acc1 polynucleotide including the coding sequence for Acc1 from S. cerevisiae under regulation of a constitutive promoter.

32. The method of claim 31 wherein the constitutive promoter comprises a PGK1 promoter from S. cerevisiae.

33. The method of claim 32 wherein the PGK1 promoter has between 80% and 100% nucleotide identity with bases 7 to 750 of SEQ ID NO: 6.

34. The method of claim 23 wherein the genetic modification comprises increased expression of an activator for sterol biosynthesis.

35. The method of claim 34 wherein the yeast cell comprises a Upc2 polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Upc2.sup.E888D from S. cerevisiae with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with a protein coded for by a reading frame defined by bases 975 to 3701 of SEQ ID NO: 9.

36. The method of claim 1 wherein the second polynucleotide comprises a coding sequence for a cytosolic prenyltransferase enzyme with a primary structure having between 80% and 100% amino acid residue sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NO: 11, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20, SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO: 22, SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 26, SEQ ID NO: 27, SEQ ID NO: 28, SEQ ID NO: 29, SEQ ID NO: 30, SEQ ID NO: 31, SEQ ID NO: 32, SEQ ID NO: 33, SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 35 or SEQ ID NO: 36.

37. The method of claim 1 further comprising extracting the at least one species of phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue from the yeast cell culture.

38. The method of claim 1 wherein the yeast cell is modified to increase the availability of the precursor chemical.

39. The method of claim 1 wherein the precursor chemical is provided to the yeast cell.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Embodiments of the present disclosure will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached Figures.

(2) FIG. 1 is a schematic of biosynthesis of olivetolic acid and related compounds with different alkyl group chain lengths in C. sativa;

(3) FIG. 2 is a schematic of biosynthesis of CBGa from hexanoic acid, malonyl-CoA, and geranyl pyrophosphate in C. sativa;

(4) FIG. 3 is a schematic of biosynthesis of downstream phytocannabinoids in the acid form from CBGa in C. sativa;

(5) FIG. 4 is a schematic of biosynthesis of CBG in a transformed yeast cell by OAS and AltPT;

(6) FIG. 5 is a schematic of biosynthesis of downstream phytocannabinoids in a transformed yeast cell from CBG;

(7) FIG. 6 is a schematic of biosynthesis of meCBG in a transformed yeast cell by DiPKS and AltPT;

(8) FIG. 7 is a schematic of biosynthesis of downstream methylated phytocannabinoid analogues in a transformed yeast cell from meCBG;

(9) FIG. 8 is a schematic of biosynthesis of downstream methylated phytocannabinoid analogues in a transformed yeast cell from meCBG;

(10) FIG. 9 is a schematic of functional domains in DiPKS, with mutations to a C-methyl transferase that for lowering methylation of olivetol;

(11) FIG. 10 is a schematic of biosynthesis of meCBG and CBG in a transformed yeast cell by DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A and AltPT;

(12) FIG. 11 is a schematic of biosynthesis of CBG in a transformed yeast cell by DiPKS.sup.G1516R and AltPT;

(13) FIG. 12 shows S. cerevisiae growth at different concentrations of hexanoic acid;

(14) FIG. 13 shows S. cerevisiae growth and olivetol production before and after hexanoic acid is introduced;

(15) FIG. 14 shows yeast growth and CBG production before and after hexanoic acid is introduced;

(16) FIG. 15 shows yeast growth and hexanoic acid consumption in S. cerevisiae before and after hexanoic acid is introduced;

(17) FIG. 16 shows cytosolic expression in S. cerevisiae of C. sativa membrane-bound prenyltransferase and of AltPT;

(18) FIG. 17 shows production in S. cerevisiae of CBG with C. sativa OAS and AltPT, and of meCBG with DiPKS and AltPT;

(19) FIG. 18 shows production of methyl-olivetol by DiPKS, and of both methyl-olivetol and olivetol by DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A;

(20) FIG. 19 shows production of methyl-olivetol by DiPKS in two separate strains of S. cerevisiae;

(21) FIG. 20 shows production of methyl-olivetol by DiPKS in two separate strains of S. cerevisiae;

(22) FIG. 21 shows production of meCBG by AltPT in two separate strains of S. cerevisiae;

(23) FIG. 22 shows production of methyl-olivetol by DiPKS, and of both methyl-olivetol and olivetol by DiPKS.sup.G1516R in two separate strains of S. cerevisiae;

(24) FIG. 23 shows production of olivetol by DiPKS.sup.G1516R, in three separate strains of S. cerevisiae; and

(25) FIG. 24 shows production of CBG by C. sativa OAS and AltPT, meCBG by DiPKS and AltPT, and CBG by DiPKS.sup.G1516R and AltPT in three strains of S. cerevisiae.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(26) Generally, the present disclosure provides methods and yeast cell lines for producing phytocannabinoids that are naturally biosynthesized in the Cannabis sativa plant and methylated phytocannabinoid analogues biosynthesized from methyl-olivetol. The phytocannabinoids and phytocannabinoid analogues are produced in transgenic yeast. The methods and cell lines provided herein include application of genes for enzymes absent from the C. sativa plant. Application of genes other than the complete set of genes in the C. sativa plant that code for enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway resulting in phytocannabinoids may provide one or more benefits including biosynthesis of decarboxylated phytocannabinoids, biosynthesis of methylated phytocannabinoid analogues, and biosynthesis production of phytocannabinoids without an input of hexanoic acid, which is toxic to Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other species of yeast.

(27) The qualifier “decarboxylated” as used herein references a form of a phytocannabinoid or phytocannabinoid analogue lacking an acid group at, e.g. positions 2 or 4 of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (“THC”), or an equivalent location in other phytocannabinoids or analogues corresponding to position 4 of olivetolic acid, which is the precursor to biosynthesis of cannabigerolic acid (“CBGa”) in C. sativa. Acid forms of phytocannabinoids are biosynthesized from olivetolic acid in C. sativa. When the acid forms of phytocannabinoids are heated, the bond between the aromatic ring of the phytocannabinoid and the carboxyl group is broken. Decarboxylation results from heating carboxylated phytocannabinoids produced in C. sativa, which occurs rapidly during combustion or heating to temperatures generally above about 110° C. For simplicity, as used herein, “decarboxylated” refers to phytocannabinoids lacking the acid groups whether or not the phytocannabinoid included an acid group that was lost during true decarboxylation, or was biosynthesized without the carboxyl group.

(28) FIG. 1 shows biosynthesis of olivetolic acid from polyketide condensation products of malonyl-CoA and hexanoyl-CoA, as occurs in C. sativa. Olivetolic acid is a metabolic precursor to CBGa. CBGa is a precursor to a large number of downstream phytocannabinoids as described in further detail below. In most varieties of C. sativa, the majority of phytocannabinoids are pentyl-cannabinoids, which are biosynthesized from olivetolic acid, which is in turn synthesized from malonyl-CoA and hexanoyl-CoA at a 2:1 stoichiometric ratio. Some propyl-cannabinoids are observed, and are often identified with a “v” suffix in the widely-used three letter abbreviations (e.g. tetrahydrocannabivarin is commonly referred to as “THCv”, cannabidivarin is commonly referred to as “CBDv”, etc.). FIG. 1 also shows biosynthesis of divarinolic acid from condensation of malonyl-CoA with n-butyl-CoA, which would provide downstream propyl-phytocannabinoids.

(29) FIG. 1 also shows biosynthesis of orsellinic acid from condensation of malonyl-CoA with acetyl-CoA, which would provide downstream methyl-phytocannabinoids. The term “methyl-phytocannabinoids” in this context means their alkyl side chain is a methyl group, where most phytocannabinoids have a pentyl group on the alkyl side chain and varinnic phytocannabinoids have a propyl group on the alkyl side chain. The context in which meCBG and other methylated phytocannabinoid analogues are called “methylated” is different from and parallel to use of “methyl” as a prefix in “methyl-phytocannabinoids” and in FIG. 1. Similarly, since olivetol has a side chain of defined length (otherwise it would be one of the other three polyketides shown in FIG. 1 and not “olivetol”), methyl-olivetol is a reference to methylation on the ring and not to a shorter side chain

(30) FIG. 1 also shows biosynthesis of 2,4-diol-6-propylbenzenoic acid from condensation of malonyl-CoA with valeryl-CoA, which would provide downstream butyl-phytocannabinoids.

(31) FIG. 2 shows biosynthesis of CBGa from hexanoic acid, malonyl-CoA, and geranyl pyrophosphate (“GPP”) in C. sativa, including the olivetolic acid biosynthesis step shown in FIG. 1. Hexanoic acid is activated with coenzyme A by hexanoyl-CoA synthase (“Hex1; Reaction 1 in FIG. 2). OAS (also called olivetolic acid synthase despite synthesizing olivetol and not olivetolic acid) and OAC together catalyze production of olivetolic acid from hexanoyl CoA and malonyl-CoA (Reaction 2 in FIG. 2). Prenyltransferase combines olivetolic acid with GPP, providing CBGa Step 3 in FIG. 2).

(32) FIG. 3 shows biosynthesis of downstream acid forms of phytocannabinoids in C. sativa from CBGa. CBGa is oxidatively cyclized into Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (“THCa”) by THCa synthase. CBGa is oxidatively cyclized into cannabidiolic acid (“CBDa”) by CBDa synthase. Other phytocannabinoids are also synthesized in C. sativa, such as cannabichromenic acid (“CBCa”), cannabielsoinic acid (“CBEa”), iso-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (“iso-THCa”), cannabicyclolic acid (“CBLa”), or cannabicitrannic acid (“CBTa”) by other synthase enzymes, or by changing conditions in the plant cells in a way that affects the enzymatic activity in terms of the resulting phytocannabinoid structure. The acid forms of each of these general phytocannabinoid types are shown in FIG. 3 with a general “R” group to show the alkyl side chain, which would be a 5-carbon chain where olivetolic acid is synthesized from hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. In some cases, the carboxyl group is alternatively found on a ring position opposite the R group from the position shown in FIG. 3 (e.g. positions 4 of THC rather than position 2 as shown in FIG. 3, etc.). The decarboxylated forms of the phytocannabinoids shown in FIG. 3 are, respectively, THC, cannabidiol (“CBD”), cannabichromene (“CBC”), cannabielsoin (“CBE”), iso-tetrahydrocannabinol (“iso-THC”), cannabicyclol (“CBL”), or cannabicitran (“CBT”).

(33) United States Publication No. 2016/0010126 to Poulos et al. describes expression of the five native C. sativa genes in S. cerevisiae and in K. marxianus. Expression of genes from the native C. sativa pathway in yeast for phytocannabinoid production may carry drawbacks. C. sativa OAS uses hexanoyl-CoA as a polyketide substrate. Hexanoic acid is toxic to S. cerevisiae and some other strains of yeast. In addition, synthesis of CBGa from olivetolic acid requires the membrane-bound C. sativa prenyltransferase enzyme, which may express poorly in fungi.

(34) Methods and yeast cells as provided herein for production of phytocannabinoids and phytocannabinoid analogues may apply and include S. cerevisiae transformed with the gene for prenyltransferase NphB from Streptomyces sp CL 190. The Streptomyces sp CL 190 NphB prenyltransferase provides an alternative to the C. sativa prenyl transferase enzyme and is referred to below as “AltPT”. AltPT is an αββα (“ABBA”) type prenyltransferase enzyme. AltPT is highly promiscuous, accepting most polyketides as a substrate for prenylation. AltPT is specific for GPP as a terpenoid donor. AltPT is a cytosolic enzyme expressed in Streptomyces sp CL 190, a gram positive bacteria, in contrast with the membrane-bound prenyltransferase expressed in C. sativa, a plant. The bacterial cytosolic enzyme expresses at greater levels in yeast than the plant membrane bound enzyme. AltPT will prenylate olivetolic acid to CBGa, similarly to the reaction catalyzed by the membrane-bound prenyltransferase in C. sativa. AltPT will also prenylate olivetol to cannabigerol (“CBG”), or methyl-olivetol to methyl cannabigerol (“meCBG”). A synthetic sequence for AltPT that is codon optimized for yeast is included here at SEQ ID NO: 1. A complete coding DNA sequence (“CDS”) for AltPT is available at the NCBI GenBank online database under accession number NCBI-AB187169.

(35) FIG. 4 shows a biosynthetic pathway in transgenic yeast for production of CBG from hexanoic acid, malonyl-CoA, and GPP. A strain of yeast as provided herein for producing CBG as shown in FIG. 4 may include genes coding for Streptomyces sp CL190 AltPT, C. sativa Hex1, and C. sativa OAS. Examples of such a yeast strain are provided as “HB37” and as “HB88”, each of which are described in Table 7.

(36) FIG. 5 shows biosynthesis of downstream phytocannabinoids from CBG. CBG is oxidatively cyclized into THC, CBD, CBC, CBE, iso-THC, CBL, or CBT. The decarboxylated forms of each of these general phytocannabinoid types are shown in FIG. 5 with a general “R” group to show the alkyl side chain, which would be a 5-carbon chain in phytocannabinoids that are biosynthesized from olivetol.

(37) FIG. 4 shows production of hexanoyl-CoA from hexanoic acid by Hex1. Hexanoic acid is activated with coenzyme A by Hex1 (Reaction 1 in FIG. 4). OAS catalyzes production of olivetol from hexanoyl CoA and malonyl-CoA (Reaction 2 in FIG. 4). AltPT condenses olivetolic acid with GPP, providing CBG (Reaction 3 in FIG. 4).

(38) The pathway shown in FIG. 4 includes C. sativa HEx1 and C. sativa OAS. The pathway shown in FIG. 4 does not include C. sativa OAC. A transgenic yeast cell for carrying out the pathway of FIG. 4 would correspondingly include a gene for OAS but not a gene for C. sativa OAC. C. sativa OAC carboxylates olivetol to olivetolic acid during biosynthesis of olivetolic acid. With OAS and without OAC or another polyketide cyclase, olivetol is produced rather than olivetolic acid, which is produced in C. sativa. As a result, the reaction catalyzed by AltPT results in CBG rather than CBGa. Downstream reactions to produce phytocannabinoids would then correspondingly produce decarboxylated species of the phytocannabinoids, including the phytocannabinoids in FIG. 5, while acid forms, including the phytocannabinoids in FIG. 3, would be produced where OAC or another polyketide cyclase is also present, such as in C. sativa.

(39) Conversion of hexanoyl-CoA to olivetol catalyzed by OAS at Reaction 2 of FIG. 4 was identified as a metabolic bottleneck in the pathway of FIG. 4. In order to increase yield at Reaction 2 of FIG. 4, multiple enzymes were functionally screened and one enzyme, a polyketide synthase from Dictyostelium discoideum called “DiPKS” was identified that could produce methyl-olivetol directly from malonyl-CoA. A synthetic sequence for DiPKS that is codon optimized for yeast is included here at SEQ ID NO: 2. A CDS for DiPKS is available at the NCBI GenBank online database under Accession Number NC_007087.3.

(40) FIG. 6 shows a biosynthetic pathway in transgenic yeast for production of meCBG from malonyl-CoA and GPP. A strain of yeast as provided herein for producing CBG as shown in FIG. 6 may include the gene for AltPT and a gene for DiPKS that supports production of polyketides from malonyl-CoA only, with no requirement for hexanoic acid in the media. DiPKS includes functional domains similar to domains found in a fatty acid synthase, a methyltransferase domain, and a Pks III domain (see FIG. 9). Examples of yeast strains including a codon optimized synthetic sequence coding for the wildtype DiPKS gene are provided as “HB84”, “HB90”, and “HB105”, each of which are described in Table 7.

(41) FIG. 6 shows production of methyl-olivetol from malonyl-CoA (Reaction 1 in FIG. 6), which is catalyzed by DiPKS. AltPT prenylates the methyl-olivetol with GPP as a prenyl group donor, providing meCBG (Reaction 2 in FIG. 6). Application of DiPKS rather than OAS facilitates production of phytocannabinoids and phytocannabinoid analogues without hexanoic acid supplementation. Since hexanoic acid is toxic to S. cerevisiae, eliminating a requirement for hexanoic acid in the biosynthetic pathway for CBG or meCBG may provide greater yields of CBG or meCBG than the yields of CBG in a yeast cell expressing OAS and Hex1.

(42) FIGS. 7 and 8 show downstream methylated phytocannabinoid analogues corresponding to methyl-tetrahydrocannabinol (“meTHC”), methyl-cannabidiol (“meCBD”), methyl-cannabichromene (“meCBC”), methyl-cannabielsoin (“meCBE”), iso-methyl-tetrahydrocannabinol (“iso-meTHC”), methyl-cannabicyclol (“meCBL”), or methyl-cannabicitran (“meCBT”), which are methylated analogues of THC, CBD, CBC, CBE, iso-THC, CBL, and CBT, respectively, that may be prepared when methyl-olivetol is provided as a precursor chemical rather than olivetolic acid or olivetol. The decarboxylated forms of each of these methylated phytocannabinoid analogues are shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 with a general “R” group to show the alkyl side chain, which would be a 5-carbon chain where synthesis results from hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, or malonyl-CoA only.

(43) Other than meCBD, a portion of the structure each of the downstream phytocannabinoid anaologues shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 includes rotationally constrained groups bonded with the aromatic ring. As a result, each of the downstream phytocannabinoid analogues shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 other than meCBD may be synthesized from meCBG in one of two rotational isomers. Depending on the rotational isomer of meCBG during synthesis, the methyl group in the resulting cyclized methylated phytocannabinoid analogues may be at the positions shown for the isomers of meTHC, meCBC, meCBE, iso-meTHC, meCBL, or meCBT in FIG. 7, or at the at the positions shown for the isomers of meTHC, meCBC, meCBE, iso-meTHC, meCBL, or meCBT in FIG. 8. References to meTHC, meCBC, meCBE, iso-meTHC, meCBL, or meCBT herein include either or both of the isomers shown in FIGS. 7 and 8.

(44) DiPKS includes a C-methyltransferase domain that methylates olivetol at position 4 on the aromatic ring. As a result, AltPT prenylates methyl-olivetol, resulting in meCBG, a phytocannabinoid analogue, rather than CBGa, which is known to be synthesized in C. sativa. Any downstream reactions that may produce phytocannabinoids when using CBGa or CBG as an input would correspondingly produce the decarboxylated species of methylated phytocannabinoid analogues shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, whereas unmethylated acid form of phytocannabinoids would be produced in C. sativa (as in FIG. 3). If OAC or another polyketide cyclase were included, the methyl-olivetol may be converted by the OAC or the other polyketide cyclase into meCBGa, as the methylation and carboxylation carbons may be at differing positions. For example, meTHC synthesized from meCBG may be methylated at carbon 4, and could be carboxylated to methyl-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (“meTHCa”) with the carboxyl group of THCa may be at position 2. Alternatively, meTHC synthesized from meCBG may be methylated at carbon 2, in which case the carboxyl group of THCa may be at position 4. THCa is observed in C. sativa with the carboxyl group at the 2 position, or at the 4 position.

(45) FIG. 9 is a schematic of the functional domains of DiPKS showing β-ketoacyl-synthase (“KS”), acyl transacetylase (“AT”), dehydratase (“DH”), C-methyl transferase (“C-Met”), enoyl reductase (“ER”), ketoreductase (“KR”), and acyl carrier protein (“ACP”). The “Type III” domain is a type 3 polyketide synthase. The KS, AT, DH, ER, KR, and ACP portions provide functions typically associated with a fatty acid synthase, speaking to DiPKS being a FAS-PKS protein. The C-Met domain provides the catalytic activity for methylating olivetol at carbon 4. The C-Met domain is crossed out in FIG. 9, schematically illustrating modifications to DiPKS protein that inactivate the C-Met domain and mitigate or eliminate methylation functionality. The Type III domain catalyzes iterative polyketide extension and cyclization of a hexanoic acid thioester transferred to the Type III domain from the ACP.

(46) FIG. 10 shows a biosynthetic pathway in transgenic yeast for production of both meCBG and CBG from malonyl-CoA and GPP. A strain of yeast as provided herein for producing both CBG and meCBG as shown in FIG. 10 may include the gene for AltPT and a gene for a mutant DiPKS with a lowered activity at the C-Met domain, as shown schematically in FIG. 9. The C-Met domain of the DiPKS protein includes amino acid residues 1510 to 1633 of DiPKS. The C-Met domain includes three motifs. The first motif includes residues 1510 to 1518. The second motif includes residues 1596 to 1603. The third motif includes residues 1623 to 1633. Disruption of one or more of these three motifs may result in lowered activity at the C-Met domain.

(47) An example of a yeast strain expressing a modified DiPKS with lowered activity in the C-Met domain is provided as “HB80A” in Example V below. HB80A includes a modification in a yeast-codon optimized gene coding for the wildtype DiPKS protein. HB80A includes modifications in the DiPKS gene such that the DiPKS protein is modified in the first motif of the C-Met domain. As a result of these modifications to the DiPKS gene, the DiPKS protein has substitutions of Gly1516Asp and Gly1518Ala. HB80A includes only the DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A and not AltPT, and as a result catalyzes only steps 1A and 1B of FIG. 10, and neither reaction 2A nor 2B. HB80A produces methyl-olivetol and olivetol. The HB80A strain may be modified to include AltPT, such as by transforming HB80A with the pAltPT plasmid (see Table 6).

(48) FIG. 10 shows production of both methyl-olivetol from malonyl-CoA (Reaction 1A in FIG. 10) and of olivetol from malonyl-CoA (Reaction 1B in FIG. 10). Reactions 1A and 1B are each catalyzed by DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A. The Gly1516Asp and Gly1518Ala substitutions are in the active site of the C-Met domain and diminish catalysis by DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A of methylation on the 4 position of the olivetol ring, allowing a portion of the input malonyl-CoA to be catalyzed according to reaction 1B rather than reaction 1A. AltPT, a promiscuous ABBA prenyltransferase, catalyzes prenylation of both the methyl-olivetol with GPP and the olivetol with GPP. Production of both meCBG (Reaction 2A in FIG. 10) and CBG (Reaction 2B in FIG. 10) follows. Any downstream reactions to produce other phytocannabinoids would then correspondingly produce a mixture of methylated phytocannabinoid analogues and species with no functional group at the 4 position on the aromatic ring of CBG (or a corresponding position in downstream phytocannabinoids), whereas acid forms would be produced in C. sativa.

(49) FIG. 11 shows a biosynthetic pathway in transgenic yeast for production of CBG only from malonyl-CoA and GPP. A strain of yeast as provided herein for producing CBG only as shown in FIG. 11 may include the gene for AltPT and a gene for a mutant DiPKS with a lowered activity at the C-Met domain, as shown schematically in FIG. 9.

(50) Examples of yeast strains expressing a modified DiPKS with essentially no activity in the C-Met domain are provided as “HB135”, “HB137”, “HB138” and “HB139” in Examples VIII, IX and X below. Each of HB135, HB137, HB138 and HB139 includes a modification in a yeast-codon optimized gene coding for the wildtype DiPKS protein. HB135, HB137, HB138 and HB139 each include a modification of the DiPKS gene such that the DiPKS protein is modified in the first motif of the C-Met domain. As a result of this modification to the DiPKS gene, the DiPKS protein has substitutions of Gly1516Arg.

(51) DiPKS.sup.G1516R catalyzes reaction 1 in FIG. 11. The Gly1516Arg substitution is in the active site of the C-Met domain and diminish catalysis by DiPKS.sup.G1516R of methylation on the 4 position of the olivetol ring. The input of malonyl-CoA is catalyzed according to reaction 1 of FIG. 11. HB139 also includes AltPT, and production of olivetol and CBG (reaction 2 in FIG. 11) follows. Any downstream reactions to produce other phytocannabinoids would then correspondingly produce phytocannabinoid species with no functional group at the 4 position on the aromatic ring of CBG, or a corresponding position in downstream phytocannabinoids, whereas acid forms would be produced in C. sativa.

(52) Increasing Availability of Biosynthetic Precursors

(53) The biosynthetic pathways shown in FIGS. 4, 6, 10 and 11 each require malonyl-CoA and GPP to produce CBGa, CBG, or meCBG, respectively. Yeast cells may be mutated, genes from other species may be introduced, genes may be upregulated or downregulated, or the yeast cells may be otherwise genetically modified, other than introduction of a polyketide synthase such as OAS or DiPKS, and other than introduction of a cytosolic prenyltransferase such as AltPT, to increase the availability of malonyl-CoA, GPP, or other input metabolites required to support the biosynthetic pathways of any of FIGS. 4, 6, 10 and 11.

(54) The yeast cells may be modified for increasing available GPP. S. cerevisiae may have one or more other mutations in Erg20 or other genes for enzymes that support metabolic pathways that deplete GPP. Erg20 catalyzes GPP production in the yeast cell. Erg20 also adds one subunit of 3-isopentyl pyrophosphate (“IPP”) to GPP, resulting in farnesyl pyrophosphate (“FPP”), a metabolite used in downstream sesquiterpene and sterol biosynthesis. Some mutations in Erg20 have been demonstrated to reduce conversion of GPP to FPP, increasing available GPP in the cell. A substitution mutation Lys197Glu in Erg20 lowers conversion of GPP to FPP by Erg20. As shown in Table 4 below, all modified base strains express the Erg20.sup.K197E mutant protein (“HB42”, “HB82”, “HB100”, “HB106”, and “HB110”). Similarly, each modified yeast strain based on any of HB42, HB82, HB100, HB106, or HB110 includes a integrate polynucleotide coding for the Erg20.sup.K197E mutant integrated into the yeast genome. SEQ ID NO: 3 is a CDS coding for the Erg20.sup.K197E protein and flanking sequences for homologous recombination.

(55) The yeast strain may be modified for increasing available malonyl-CoA. Lowered mitochondrial acetaldehyde catabolism results in diversion of the acetaldehyde from ethanol catabolism into acetyl-CoA production, which in turn drives production of malonyl-CoA and downstream polyketides and terpenoids. S. cerevisiae may be modified to express an acetyl-CoA synthase from Salmonella enterica with a substitution modification of Leucine to Proline at residue 641 (“Acs.sup.L641P”), and with aldehyde dehydrogenase 6 from S. cerevisiae (“Ald6”). The Leu641Pro mutation removes downstream regulation of Acs, providing greater activity with the ACS.sup.L641P mutant than the wild type Acs. Together, cytosolic expression of these two enzymes increases the concentration of acetyl-CoA in the cytosol. Greater acetyl-CoA concentrations in the cytosol result in lowered mitochondrial catabolism, bypassing mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase (“PDH”), providing a PDH bypass. As a result, more acetyl-CoA is available for malonyl-CoA production. SEQ ID NO: 4 is plasmid based on the pGREG plasmid and including a DNA sequence coding for the genes for Ald6 and SeAcs.sup.L641P, promoters, terminators, and integration site homology sequences for integration into the S. cerevisiae genome at Flagfeldt-site 19 by recombination applying clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (“CRISPR”). As shown in Table 4 below (by the term “PDH bypass”), base strains HB82, HB100, HB106, and HB110 have a portion of SEQ ID NO: 4 from bases 1494 to 2999 that code for Ald6 under the TDH.sub.3 promoter, and a portion of SEQ ID NO: 4 from bases 3948 to 5893 that code for SeAcs.sup.L641P under the Tef1.sub.P promoter. Similarly, each modified yeast strain based on any of HB82, HB100, HB106, or HB110 includes a polynucleotide coding for Ald6 and SeAcs.sup.L641P.

(56) Another approach to increasing cytosolic malonyl-CoA is to upregulate Acc1, which is the native yeast malonyl-CoA synthase. The promoter sequence of the Acc1 gene was replaced by a constitutive yeast promoter for the PGK1 gene. The promoter from the PGK1 gene allows multiple copies of Acc1 to be present in the cell. The native Acc1 promoter allows only a single copy of the protein to be present in the cell at a time. The native promoter region is shown in SEQ ID NO: 5. The modified promoter region is shown in SEQ ID NO: 6.

(57) In addition to upregulating expression of Acc1, S. cerevisiae may include one or more modifications of Acc1 to increase Acc1 activity and cytosolic acetyl-CoA concentrations. Two mutations in regulatory sequences were identified in literature that remove repression of Acc1, resulting in greater Acc1 expression and higher malonyl-CoA production. SEQ ID NO: 7 is a polynucleotide that may be used to modify the S. cerevisiae genome at the native Acc1 gene by homologous recombination. SEQ ID NO: 7 includes a portion of the coding sequence for the Acc1 gene with Ser659Ala and Ser1157Ala modifications. As a result, the S. cerevisiae transformed with this sequence will express Acc1.sup.S659A; S1157A. A similar result may be achieved, for example, by integrating a sequence with the Tef1 promoter, the Acc1 with Ser659Ala and Ser1157Ala modifications, and the Prm9 terminator at any suitable site. The end result would be that Tef1, Acc1.sup.S659A; S1157A and Prm9 are flanked by genomic DNA sequences for promoting integration into the S. cerevisiae genome. This was attempted at Flagfeldt site 18 but due to the size of the construct, the approach with SEQ ID NO: 7 described above was followed instead.

(58) S. cerevisiae may include modified expression of Maf1 or other regulators of tRNA biosynthesis. Overexpressing native Maf1 has been shown to reduce loss of IPP to tRNA biosynthesis and thereby improve monoterpene yields in yeast. IPP is an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway. SEQ ID NO: 8 is a polynucleotide that was integrated into the S. cerevisiae genome at Maf1-site 5 for genomic integration of Maf1 under the Tef1 promoter. SEQ ID NO: 8 includes the Tef1 promoter, the native Maf1 gene, and the Prm9 terminator. Together, Tef1, Maf1, and Prm9 are flanked by genomic DNA sequences for promoting integration into the S. cerevisiae genome. As shown in Table 4 below, base strains HB100, HB106, and HB110 express Maf1 under the Tef1 promoter. Similarly, each modified yeast strain based on any of HB100, HB106, or HB110 includes a polynucleotide including a coding sequence for Maf1 under the Tef1 promoter.

(59) Upc2 is an activator for sterol biosynthesis in S. cerevisiae. A Glu888Asp mutation of Upc2 increases monoterpene production in yeast. SEQ ID NO: 9 is a polynucleotide that may be integrated into the genome to provide expression of Upc2.sup.E888D under the Tef1 promoter. SEQ ID NO: 9 includes the Tef1 promoter, the Upc2.sup.E888D gene, and the Prm9 terminator. Together, Tef1, Upc2.sup.E888D, and Prm9 are flanked by genomic DNA sequences for promoting integration into the S. cerevisiae genome.

(60) Any of the above genes, Erg20.sup.K197E, Acs1.sup.L641P, Ald6, Maf1, Acc1.sup.S659A; S1157A or Upc2.sup.E888D, may be expressed from a plasmid or integrated into the genome of S. cerevisiae. Genome integration may be through homologous recombination, including CRISPR recombination, or any suitable approach. The promoter of Acc1 may be similarly modified through recombination. The coding and regulatory sequences in each of SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, or SEQ ID NO: 9 may be included in a plasmid for expression (e.g. pYES, etc.) or a linear polynucleotide for integration into the S. Cerevisiae genome. Each of base strains HB42, HB82, HB100, HB106, or HB110 includes one or more integrated SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 8, or SEQ ID NO: 10 (see below). Integration of SEQ ID NO: 7, or SEQ ID NO: 9 may be applied by similar approaches.

(61) Increased DiPKS Function

(62) As shown in FIG. 9, DiPKS includes an ACP domain. The ACP domain of DiPKS requires a phosphopantetheine group as a co-factor. NpgA is a 4′-phosphopantethienyl transferase from Aspergillus nidulans. A codon-optimized copy of NpgA for S. cerevisiae may be introduced into S. cerevisiae and transformed into the S. cerevisiae, including by homologous recombination. An NpgA gene cassette was integrated into the genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae at Flagfeldt site 14 to create strain HB100. The sequence of the integrated DNA is shown in SEQ ID NO: 10, and includes the Tef1 Promoter, the NpgA coding sequence and the Prm9 terminator. Together the Tef1p, NpgA, and Prm9t are flanked by genomic DNA sequences promoting integration into Flagfeldt site 14 in the S. cerevisiae genome. As shown in Table 4 below, base strains HB100, HB106, and HB110 include this integrated cassette. Alternatively, bases 636 to 2782 of SEQ ID NO: 10 may be included on an expression plasmid as in strain HB98.

(63) Expression of NpgA provides the A. nidulans phosphopantetheinyl transferase for greater catalysis of loading the phosphopantetheine group onto the ACP domain of DiPKS. As a result, the reaction catalyzed by DiPKS (reaction 1 in FIG. 6) may occur at greater rate, providing a greater amount of methyl-olivetol for prenylation to meCBG.

(64) Other Prenyltransferase Enzymes

(65) NphB variants were defined based on a DELTA BLAST search for ABBA prenyltransferase structures. The list was refined by looking for a binding pocket appropriate for GPP and not IPP, dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate, or other prenyl groups. SEQ ID NO: 12 to SEQ ID NO: 33 provide primary structure amino acid residue sequences for cytosolic prenyltransferase enzymes from fungi and bacteria that were located in the DELTA BLAST search. DELTA BLAST searches of the C. sativa genome were also conducted and membrane-bound prenyltransferase enzymes were located in these searches. Some C. sativa membrane-bound prenyltransferase enzymes express poorly in some species of yeast and would not be introduced into the yeast strains provided herein to prepare phytocannabinoids or phytocannabinoid analogues.

(66) SEQ ID NO: 33 to SEQ ID NO: 36 provide primary structure amino acid residue sequences for cytosolic prenyl transferase enzymes from fungi and bacteria that were located in a manual literature search. SEQ ID NO: 33 to SEQ ID NO: 36 are primary structure amino acid residue sequences for cytosolic prenyl transferase enzymes named FNQ26, FNQ28, FUR7, and NAPT9, respectively.

(67) Any of SEQ ID NO: 11 to SEQ ID NO: 36 may be applied to the yeast strains described herein as the cytosolic prenyltransferase. Each of these prenyltransferases are summarized in Table 1.

(68) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Prenyltransferases SEQ ID NO: Comments 11 640387779 ATEG_00821 predicted protein [Aspergillus terreus] 12 2515835839 B100DRAFT_06502 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 13 2516097927 B121DRAFT_00516 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 14 2516101115 B121DRAFT_03712 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 15 2516101748 B121DRAFT_04345 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 16 2516099186 B121DRAFT_01777 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 17 2516104298 B121DRAFT_06901 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 18 2585297016 EW57DRAFT_01164 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Streptomyces atratus] 19 2585373487 putative prenyltransferase [Streptomyces cinnamonensis] 20 2585373644 aromatic prenyltransferase [Streptomyces iakyrus] 21 2585378108 ABBA prenyltransferase Ptf_St [Streptomyces tendae] 22 2585708813 JD81DRAFT_01144 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Micromonospora sagamiensis] 23 2516111586 B105DRAFT_07016 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 24 2517160389 SacsaDRAFT_00895 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB. [Saccharomonospora saliphila] 25 2521683528 H294DRAFT_07929 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 26 2521683684 H294DRAFT_08085 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 27 2524586714 H299DRAFT_04355 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 28 2528491298 I003DRAFT_05612 Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Streptomyces sp. CL190] 29 2585378750 SPLIT WT5.12c [Streptomyces sp. WT5: JN402323] 30 2585373485 SPLIT putative prenyltransferase [Streptomyces cinnamonensis DSM 1042: AM384985] 31 2552198934 SPLIT Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Nocardia concava NBRC 100430: NoneDRAFT_BAFX01000066_1.66] 32 2521987056 SPLIT Aromatic prenyltransferase NphB [Myxococcus stipitatus DSM 14675: CP004025] 33 FNQ26 from Streptomyces cinnamonensis 34 FNQ28 from S. cinnamonensis 35 FUR7 from Streptomyces sp. (strain KO-3988) 36 NAPT9 from Streptomyces aculeolatus

(69) Modification of DiPKS

(70) DiPKS may be modified to reduce or eliminate the activity of C-Met.

(71) SEQ ID NO: 37 is a modified form of a synthetic sequence for DIPKS that is codon optimized for yeast in which DiPKS includes a Gly1516Asp substitution and a Gly1518Ala substitution that together disrupt the activity of the C-met domain. Results of DiPKS.sup.G1516D, G1518A expression in S. cerevisiae cultures are provided below in relation to Example IV which includes strain HB80A. Other modifications may be introduced into DiPKS to disrupt or eliminate the entire active site of C-Met or all of C-Met. Each of these modified DiPKS enzymes may be introduced into S. cerevisiae as described for wild type DiPKS.

(72) SEQ ID NO: 38 is a modified form of a synthetic sequence for DIPKS that is codon optimized for yeast in which DiPKS includes a Gly1516Arg substitution that disrupts the activity of the C-met domain. Results of DiPKS.sup.G1516R expression in S. cerevisiae cultures are provided below in relation to Example VIII, which includes strain HB135 and Example IX, which includes strains HB135, HB137 and HB138.

(73) In addition to DiPKS.sup.G1516D,G1518A and DiPKS.sup.G1516R specifically, other modifications were introduced into DiPKS to disrupt or eliminate the entire active site of C-Met or all of C-Met: (a) substitution of motif 1 with GGGSGGGSG, (b) a Gly1516Arg substitution in motif 1 and substitution of motif 2 with GGGSGGGS, (c). a Glu1634Ala, which is just outside motif 3 and disrupts tertiary structure at an active site in the C-Met domain, and (d). disruption of an active site in the C-Met domain by a His1608Gln substitution. Codon optimized sequences for each of (a) to (d) were introduced into yeast on expression plasmids, similarly to expression of DiPKS.sup.G1516D,G1518A and DiPKS.sup.G1516R, into base strain HB100. In each case, no production of olivetol was observed. Substitution of either motif 1 or motif 2 with GGGSGGGS eliminated production of methyl-olivetol as well. A culture of yeast expressing the DiPKS.sup.G1634A mutant provided 2.67 mg methyl-olivetol per I of culture in one example batch. A culture of yeast expressing the DiPKS.sup.H1608N mutants provided 3.19 mg methyl-olivetol per I of culture in one example batch.

(74) Transforming and Growing Yeast Cells

(75) Details of specific examples of methods carried out and yeast cells produced in accordance with this description are provided below as Examples I, to X. Each of these ten specific examples applied similar approaches to plasmid construction, transformation of yeast, quantification of strain growth, and quantification of intracellular metabolites. These common features across the ten examples are described below, followed by results and other details relating to one or more of the ten examples.

(76) Plasmid Construction

(77) Plasmids assembled to apply and prepare examples of the methods and yeast cells provided herein are shown in Table 2. In Table 2, for the expression plasmids pYES, and pYES2, SEQ ID NOs 39 and 40 respectively provide the plasmids as a whole without an expression cassette. The expression cassettes of SEQ ID NOs: 10, 37, 38, and 41 to 47 can be included in to prepare the plasmids indicated in Table 2. SEQ ID NO: 4 is the pGREG plasmid including a cassette for the PDH bypass genes.

(78) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Plasmids and Cassettes Used to Prepare Yeast Strains Plasmid Cassette Description pYES (none) LEU auxotroph; ampicillin resistance; SEQ ID NO: 39 pYES2 (none) URA auxotroph; ampicillin resistance; SEQ ID NO: 40 pPDH Bases 1 to High copy amplification plasmid with PDH Bypass genes 7214 from for acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (Ald6) and acetyl-CoA SEQ ID NO: 4 synthase (Acs.sup.L641P) assembled in pGREG 505/G418 flanked by integration site homology sequences as follows: C1-506-BclV-Site 19 UP region-L0 L0-TDH3.sub.P-L1-Ald6-L2-Adh1.sub.T-LTP1 LTP1-Tef1.sub.P-L3-Acs.sup.L641P-L4-Prm9.sub.T-LTP2 LTP2-Site 19 down region-C6-506 pNPGa SEQ ID NO: 10 High copy NpgA expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Tef1.sub.P-L1-NpgA-L2-Prm9.sub.T-LV5 pDiPKSm1 SEQ ID NO: 37 High copy DiPKS.sup.G1516D;G1518A expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Gal1-L1-DiPKS.sup.G1516D;G1518A-L2-Prm9.sub.T-LV5 pDIPKSm2 SEQ ID NO: 38 High copy DIPKS.sup.G1516R expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Gal1-L1-DiPKS.sup.G1516R-L2-Prm9t.sub.T-LV5 pGFP SEQ ID NO: 41 High copy GFP expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Tef1.sub.P-GFP-Cyc.sub.T-LV5 pPTGFP SEQ ID NO: 42 High copy C. sativa prenyltransferase fused with GFP expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Tef1.sub.P-CS.PT_GFP-Cyc.sub.T-LV5 pAPTGFP SEQ ID NO: 43 High copy AltPT fused with GFP expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Tef1.sub.P-APT_GFP-Cyc.sub.T-LV5 pAltPT SEQ ID NO: 44 High copy AltPT expression plasmid in pYES with: LV3-PMA1.sub.P-L1-AltPT-L2-Eno2.sub.T-LV5 pH1OAS SEQ ID NO: 45 High copy Hexl and OAS expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-TDH3.sub.P-L1-Hex1-L2-Adh1.sub.T-LTP1 TP1-Tef1.sub.P-L3-OAS-L4-Prm9.sub.T-LV5 pDiPKS SEQ ID NO: 46 High copy DiPKS expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Gal1-L1-DiPKS-L2-Prm9.sub.T-LV5 pCRISPR SEQ ID NO: 47 High copy Cas9 endonuclease and targeted gRNA expression plasmid in pYES2 with: LV3-Tef1.sub.P-Cas9-Adh1.sub.T-LTP1 LTP1-gRNA-LV5

(79) Plasmids for introduction into S. cerevisiae were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (“PCR”) with primers from Operon Eurofins and Phusion HF polymerase (ThermoFisher F-530S) according to the manufacturer's recommended protocols using an Eppendorf Mastercycler ep Gradient 5341.

(80) All plasmids were assembled using overlapping DNA parts and transformation assisted recombination in S. cerevisiae. The plasmids were transformed into S. cerevisiae using the lithium acetate heat shock method as described by Gietz, R. D. and Schiestl, R. H., “High-efficiency yeast transformation using the LiAc/SS carrier DNA/PEG method.” Nat. Protoc. 2, 31-34 (2007). The base yeast strains used for assembling plasmids are shown in Table 3:

(81) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Base Yeast Strains Strain Background Modification Comments HB24 -LEU None Unmodified yeast with Leucine auxotrophy used to assemble plasmids HB25 -URA None Unmodified yeast with Uracil auxotrophy used to assemble plasmids

(82) The pAltPT plasmid was assembled in the HB24 leucine auxotroph. The pNPGA, pDiPKSm1, pDiPKSm2, pGFP, pPTGFP, pAPTGFP, pH1OAS, pDiPKS, pCRISPR, and pPDH plasmids were assembled in the HB25 uracil auxotroph. Transformed S. cerevisiae cells were selected by auxotrophic selection on agar petri dishes. Colonies recovered from the petri dishes were grown up in liquid selective media for 16 hrs at 30° C. while being shaken at 250 RPM.

(83) After growth in liquid selective media, the transformed S. cerevisiae cells were collected and the plasmid DNA was extracted. The extracted plasmid DNA was transformed into Escherichia coli. Transformed E. coli were selected for by growing on agar petri dishes including ampicillin. The E. coli were cultured to amplify the plasmid. The plasmid grown in the E. coli was extracted and sequenced with Sanger dideoxy sequencing to verify accurate construction. The sequence-verified plasmid was then used for genome modification or stable transformation of the S. cerevisiae.

(84) Genome Modification of S. cerevisiae

(85) The S. cerevisiae strains described herein may be prepared by stable transformation of plasmids or genome modification. Genome modification may be accomplished through homologous recombination, including by methods leveraging CRISPR.

(86) Methods applying CRISPR were applied to delete DNA from the S. cerevisiae genome and introduce heterologous DNA into the S. cerevisiae genome. Guide RNA (“gRNA”) sequences for targeting the Cas9 endonuclease to the desired locations on the S. cerevisiae genome were designed with Benchling online DNA editing software. DNA splicing by overlap extension (“SOEing”) and PCR were applied to assemble the gRNA sequences and amplify a DNA sequence including a functional gRNA cassette.

(87) The functional gRNA cassette, a Cas9-expressing gene cassette, and the pYes2 (URA) plasmid were assembled into the pCRISPR plasmid and transformed into S. cerevisiae for facilitating targeted DNA double-stranded cleavage. The resulting DNA cleavage was repaired by the addition of a linear fragment of target DNA.

(88) The CDS for the Erg20.sup.K197E protein shown in SEQ ID NO: 3 was integrated into the genome of HB13 by homologous recombination, resulting in the HB42 base strain.

(89) Bases 51 to 7114 of SEQ ID NO: 4 were integrated into the HB42 strain by CRISPR to provide the HB82 base strain with the PDH bypass genes in S. cerevisiae. The pPDH plasmid was sequence verified after assembly in S. cerevisiae. The sequence-verified pPDH plasmid was grown in E. coli, purified, and digested with BciV1 restriction enzymes. As in Table 2, digestion by BciV1 provided a polynucleotide including the genes for Ald6 and SeAcs.sup.L641P, promoters, terminators, and integration site homology sequences for integration into the S. cerevisiae genome at PDH-site 19 by Cas9. The resulting linear PDH bypass donor polynucleotide, shown in bases 51 to 7114 of SEQ ID NO: 4, was purified by gel separation.

(90) With both PDH bypass genes (Ald6 and Acs.sup.L641P) on the single PDH bypass polynucleotide, the PDH bypass donor polynucleotide was co-transformed into S. cerevisiae with pCRISPR. Transformation was by the lithium acetate heat shock method as described by Gietz. The pCRISPR plasmid expresses Cas9, which is targeted to a selected location of S. cerevisiae the genome by a gRNA molecule. At the location, the Cas9 protein creates a double stranded break in the DNA. The PDH bypass donor polynucleotide was used as a donor polynucleotide in the CRISPR reaction. The PDH bypass donor polynucleotide including Ald6, Acs.sup.L641P, promoters, and terminators was integrated into the genome at the site of the break, Site 19, by homologous recombination, resulting in strain HB82.

(91) The NpgA donor polynucleotide shown in SEQ ID NO: 10 was prepared and amplified. DNA SOEing was used to create a single donor DNA fragment from three polynucleotides for NpgA integration. The first polynucleotide was the 5′ region of genomic homology that allows the donor to recombine into the genome at a specific locus. The second polynucleotide coded for the NpgA gene cassette. The NpgA gene cassette includes the Tef1 promoter, the NpgA coding sequence and the Prm9 terminator. The phosphopantetheinyl transferase polynucleotide included the 3′ region for genomic homology to facilitate targeted integration into the S. cerevisiae genome.

(92) The NpgA donor polynucleotide was co-transformed with the pCRISPR plasmid into strain HB82. The pCRISPR plasmid was expressed and endonuclease Cas9 was targeted to a location on the S. cerevisiae genome by a gRNA molecule. At the location, the Cas9 protein created a double stranded break in the DNA and the NpgA donor polynucleotide was integrated into the genome at the break by homologous recombination to provide the HB100 base strain.

(93) The Maf1 donor polynucleotide shown in SEQ ID NO: 8 was prepared and amplified. DNA SOEing was used to create a single donor DNA fragment from three polynucleotides for Maf1 integration. The first polynucleotide was the 5′ region of genomic homology that allows the donor to recombine into the genome at a specific locus. The second polynucleotide coded for the Maf1 gene cassette. The Maf1 gene cassette includes the Tef1 promoter, the Maf1 coding sequence and the Prm9 terminator. The Maf1 polynucleotide included the 3′ region for genomic homology to facilitate targeted integration into the S. cerevisiae genome.

(94) The Maf1 donor polynucleotide was co-transformed with the pCRISPR plasmid into the HB100 strain. The pCRISPR plasmid may be expressed and endonuclease Cas9 was targeted to a location on the S. cerevisiae genome by a gRNA molecule. At the location, the Cas9 protein may create a double stranded break in the DNA and the Maf1 donor polynucleotide may be integrated into the genome at the break by homologous recombination. Stable transformation of the Maf1 donor polynucleotide into the HB100 strain provides the HB106 base strain.

(95) The Acc1-PGK1p donor polynucleotide shown in SEQ ID NO: 6 was prepared and amplified. DNA SOEing was used to create a single donor DNA fragment from three polynucleotides for Acc1-PGK1 integration. The first polynucleotide was the 5′ region of genomic homology that allows the donor to recombine into the genome at a specific locus. The second polynucleotide coded for the PGK1 promoter region. The Acc1 polynucleotide included the 3′ region for genomic homology to facilitate targeted integration into the S. cerevisiae genome.

(96) The Acc1-PGK1 donor polynucleotide was co-transformed with the pCRISPR plasmid. The pCRISPR plasmid was expressed and endonuclease Cas9 was targeted to a location on the S. cerevisiae genome by a gRNA molecule. At the location, the Cas9 protein created a double stranded break in the DNA and the Acc1-PGK1 donor polynucleotide was integrated into the genome at the break by homologous recombination. Stable transformation of donor polynucleotide into the HB100 strain provides the HB110 base strain with Acc1 under regulation of the PGK1 promoter.

(97) Table 4 provides a summary of the base strains that were prepared by genome modification of S. cerevisiae. Each base strain shown in Table 4 is a leucine and uracil auxotroph, and none of them include a plasmid.

(98) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Base Transformed Strains Prepared for Confirming Protein Expression and for Phytocannabinoid Production Strain Modification Integration HB42 Erg20.sup.K197E SEQ ID NOs: 3 HB82 Erg20.sup.K197E, PDH bypass SEQ ID NOs: 3, 4 HB100 Erg20.sup.K197E, PDH bypass, SEQ ID NOs: 3, 4, 10 NPGa (site 14) HB106 Erg20.sup.K197E, PDH bypass, SEQ ID NOs: 3, 4, 10, 8 NPGa (site 14), Maf1 (site 5) HB110 Erg20.sup.K197E, PDH bypass, SEQ ID NOs: 3, 4, 10, NPGa (site 14), Maf1 (site 5), 8, 6 Acc1 promoter replaced with PGK1.sup.p

(99) Stable Transformation for Strain Construction

(100) Plasmids were transformed into S. cerevisiae using the lithium acetate heat shock method as described by Gietz.

(101) Transgenic S. cerevisiae strains HB1, HB6, and HB7 were prepared from the HB25 base strain by introducing the plasmids from Table 2 into HB25 as indicated below in Table 5. Strains HB1, HB6, and HB7 were used for comparing protein expression levels in S. cerevisiae of C. sativa prenyltransferase and AltPT.

(102) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Transformed Yeast Strains Including Expression Plasmids Prepared for Confirming Protein Expression and for Phytocannabinoid Production Strain Base Strain Plasmid HB1 HB25 pGFP HB6 HB25 pPTGFP HB7 HB25 pAPTGFP HB13 HB25 pEV

(103) Transgenic S. cerevisiae HB80, HB80A, HB98, HB102, HB135, HB137 and HB138 were prepared from the HB42, HB100, HB106 and HB110 bases strain by transformation of HB42 with expression plasmids, and HB80A was prepared by transformation of HB80, as shown below in Table 6. HB80, HB98 and HB102 each include and express DiPKS. HB80A includes and expresses DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A. HB135, HB137 and HB138 each include and express DiPKS.sup.G1516R. HB98 includes and expresses DiPKS and NPGa from a plasmid.

(104) TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Strains including plasmids expressing polyketide synthase Strain Base Strain Plasmid HB80 HB42 pDiPKS HB80A HB80 pDIPKSm1 HB98 HB42 pDiPKS pNPGa HB102 HB100 pDIPKS HB135 HB100 pDIPKSm2 HB137 HB106 pDIPKSm2 HB138 HB110 pDIPKSm2

(105) Transgenic S. cerevisiae HB37, HB84, HB88, HB90, HB105 and HB130 were prepared from base strains indicated in Table 7 by transformation the base strains with the expression plasmids as shown below in Table 7. HB37 and HB88 each include and express AltPT and OAS. HB80, HB90 and HB105 each include and express AltPT and DiPKS. HB139 includes and expresses AltPT and DiPKS.sup.G1516R.

(106) TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 7 Strains including plasmids expressing cytosolic prenyltransferase Strain Base Strain Plasmid 1 Plasmid 2 HB37 HB42 pAltPT pH1OAS HB84 HB42 pAltPT pDiPKS HB88 HB82 pAltPT pH1OAS HB90 HB82 pAltPT pDiPKS HB105 HB100 pAltPT pDIPKS HB139 HB106 pAltPT pDIPKSm2

(107) Yeast Growth and Feeding Conditions

(108) Yeast cultures were grown in overnight cultures with selective media to provide starter cultures. The resulting starter cultures were then used to inoculate triplicate 50 ml cultures to an optical density at having an absorption at 600 nm (“A.sub.600”) of 0.1. Table 6 shows details of the media used to grow each strain.

(109) TABLE-US-00008 TABLE 8 Growth media used for Yeast Strain Growth Media HB13-HA YNB + 2% glucose + 1.6 g/L 4DO* + 0.5 mM hexanoic Acid HB13-No YNB + 2% raffinose + 2% galactose + 1.6 g/L 4DO* HB37-HA YNB + 2% glucose + 1.6 g/L 4DO* + 0.5 mM hexanoic acid HB84-No YNB + 2% raffinose + 2% galactose + 1.6 g/L 4DO*

(110) In Table 8, “4DO*” refers to yeast synthetic dropout media supplement lacking leucine and uracil. With respect to strain HB13, “HB13-HA” refers to HB13 grown in the presence of 0.5 mM hexanoic acid and “HB13-No” refers to HB13 grown in the absence of hexanoic acid. In Table 8, “YNB” is a nutrient broth including the chemicals listed in the first two columns side of Table 9. The chemicals listed in the third and fourth columns of Table 9 are included in the 4DO* supplement.

(111) TABLE-US-00009 TABLE 9 YNB Nutrient Broth and 4DO* Supplement YNB Con- 4DO* Chemical centration Chemical Concentration Ammonium Sulphate 5 g/L Adenine 18 mg/L Biotin 2 μg/L p-Aminobenzoic acid 8 mg/L Calcium pantothenate 400 μg/L Alanine 76 mg/ml Folic acid 2 μg/L Arginine 76 mg/ml Inositol 2 mg/L Asparagine 76 mg/ml Nicotinic acid 400 μg/L Aspartic Acid 76 mg/ml p-Aminobenzoic acid 200 μg/L Cysteine 76 mg/ml Pyridoxine HCl 400 μg/L Glutamic Acid 76 mg/ml Riboflavin 200 μg/L Glutamine 76 mg/ml Thiamine HCL 400 μg/L Glycine 76 mg/ml Citric acid 0.1 g/L Histidine 76 mg/ml Boric acid 500 μg/L myo-Inositol 76 mg/ml Copper sulfate 40 μg/L Isoleucine 76 mg/ml Potassium iodide 100 μg/L Lysine 76 mg/ml Ferric chloride 200 μg/L Methionine 76 mg/ml Magnesium sulfate 400 μg/L Phenylalanine 76 mg/ml Sodium molybdate 200 μg/L Proline 76 mg/ml Zinc sulfate 400 μg/L Serine 76 mg/ml Potassium phosphate 1.0 g/L Threonine 76 mg/ml monobasic Magnesium sulfate 0.5 g/L Tryptophan 76 mg/ml Sodium chloride 0.1 g/L Tyrosine 76 mg/ml Calcium chloride 0.1 g/L Valine 76 mg/ml

(112) Quantification of Metabolites

(113) Intracellular metabolites were extracted from the S. cerevisiae cells using methanol extraction. One mL of liquid culture was spun down at 12,000×g for 3 minutes. 250 μL of the resulting supernatant was used for extracellular metabolite quantification. The resulting cell pellet was suspended in 200 μl of −40° C. 80% methanol. The mixture was vortexed and chilled on ice for 10 minutes. After chilling on ice for 10 minutes, the mixture was spun down at 15,000×g at 4° C. for 14 minutes. The resulting supernatant was collected. An additional 200 μl of −40° C. 80% methanol was added to the cell debris pellet and the mixture was vortexed and chilled for 10 minutes on ice. After chilling on ice for 10 minutes, the mixture was spun down at 15,000×g at 4° C. for 14 minutes. The resulting 200 μl of supernatant was added to the previously collected 200 μl of supernatant, providing a total of 400 μl of 80% methanol with intracellular metabolites.

(114) Intracellular metabolites were quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (“HPLC”) and mass spectrometry (“MS”) methods. An Agilent 1260 autosampler and HPLC system connected to a ThermoFinnigan LTQ mass spectrometer was used. The HPLC system included a Zorbax Eclipse C18 2.1 μm×5.6 mm×100 mm column.

(115) The metabolites were injected in 10 μl samples using the autosampler and separated on the HPLC using at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. The HPLC separation protocol was 20 mins total with (a) 0-2 mins of 98% Solvent A and 2% Solvent B; (b) 2-15 mins to get to 98% solvent B; (c) 15-16.5 minutes at 98% solvent B; (d) 16.5-17.5 minutes to get to 98% A; and (e) a final 2.5 minutes of equilibration at 98% Solvent A. Solvent A was acetonitrile+0.1% formic acid in MS water and solvent B was 0.1% formic acid in MS water.

(116) After HPLC separation, samples were injected into the mass spectrometer by electrospray ionization and analyzed in positive mode. The capillary temperature was held at 380° C. The tube lens voltage was 30 V, the capillary voltage was 0 V, and the spray voltage was 5 kV. After HPLC-MS/MS, CBG was analyzed as a parent ion at 317.2 and a daughter ion at 193.1, while meCBG was analyzed as a parent ion of 331.2. Similarly, after HPLC-MS/MS, olivetol was analyzed as a parent ion at 181.2 and a daughter ion at 111, while methyl-olivetol analyzed as a parent ion at 193.2 and a daughter ion at 125.

(117) Different concentrations of known standards were injected to create a linear standard curve. Standards for CBG and meCBG were purchased from Toronto Research Chemicals. The meCBG was custom prepared by request because Toronto Research Chemicals had not synthesized that chemical prior to being asked for the standard. Olivetol and methyl-olivetol standards were purchased from Sigma Aldrich.

(118) Effects of Hexanoic Acid on S. cerevisiae Growth

(119) The genes coding for enzymes required for hexanoic acid biosynthesis were not introduced into S. cerevisiae. Instead, in yeast cells including the OAS gene, such as HB37, hexanoic acid was included in the growth media.

(120) FIG. 12 shows the effect of hexanoic acid supplementation on growth of S. cerevisiae. HB13 was cultured in YNB+2% glucose+1.6 g/L 4DO*+0.5 mM hexanoic acid. Hexanoic acid was added at 36 hours of culture. The hexanoic acid was added to separate culture samples at concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mM. Hexanoic acid is toxic to S. cerevisiae. Decreased growth was observed in the presence of hexanoic acid. The magnitude of the decrease in S. cerevisiae growth corresponds to the concentration of hexanoic acid in the growth media. The A.sub.600 value of culture suspensions quantifies the growth rate, which is shown at hexanoic acid concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mM in FIG. 12.

(121) In the presence of 0.5 mM hexanoic acid, HB13 and HB37 were grown for 96 hours with samples taken at the 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, 60, 72 h, 84 h and 96 h points. In the absence of hexanoic acid, HB13 and HB84 were grown and a single time point was taken at 72 hours. HB13 was used as a control in both experiments. The growth media are described above in relation to Tables 8 and 9.

(122) TABLE-US-00010 TABLE 10 HB13 and HB37 (0.5 mM hexanoic acid) and HB13 and HB84 (no hexanoic acid) growth Time Point HB13-HA HB13-No HB37-HA HB84-No 24 h 5.33 (no data) 3.33 (no data) 36 h 5.80 (no data) 3.43 (no data) 48 h 4.67 (no data) 3.33 (no data) 60 h 6.07 (no data) 3.53 (no data) 72 h 8.96 10.7 4.48 6.9 84 h 7.23 (no data) 4.13 (no data) 96 h 8.28 (no data) 4.33 (no data)

(123) As shown in Table 10, HB84, outgrew HB37. In addition, HB84 does not require hexanoic acid to produce meCBG, while HB37 requires hexanoic acid to produce CBG. Similarly, HB13 showed better growth at 72 h in the absence of hexanoic acid compared with the presence of 0.5 mM hexanoic acid, consistent with the data shown in FIG. 12.

(124) FIGS. 13 to 15 each show the A.sub.600 values of the HB37 culture listed in Table 10 (dashed lines with triangle data points). In addition, each of FIGS. 13 to 15 shows another data series by solid lines with circle data points.

(125) FIG. 13 shows olivetol production (μg olivetol per L of culture media) in solid lines with circle data points.

(126) FIG. 14 shows CBG production (μg CBG per L of culture media) in solid lines with circle data points.

(127) FIG. 15 shows hexanoic acid present in the culture (mg hexanoic acid per L of culture media) in solid lines with circle data points.

(128) Together, FIGS. 13 to 15 are consistent with a dioxic shift occurring at between 50 and 60 hours. The dioxic shift includes a metabolic shift from glucose catabolism to acetic acid and ethanol catabolism. With the dioxic shift, many secondary metabolic pathways become more active, and the AltPT and OAS activities similarly increase.

(129) FIGS. 12 to 15 and Table 10 show data consistent with hexanoic acid toxicity not appearing to have been mitigated to any great extent by consumption of hexanoic acid to produce phytocannabinoids until the hexanoic acid levels dropped between 50 and 60 hours, then continued to drop. As shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, olivetol and CBG were being produced beginning with the introduction of hexanoic acid. However, while CBG was produced and the hexanoic acid was converted to olivetol, the A.sub.600 of the culture did not increase drastically as the olivetol and CBG were produced. The A.sub.600 increased only after the hexanoic acid began to deplete as shown in FIG. 15 between 50 and 60 hours. The depletion is a result at least in part of olivetol production. However, no significant increase in culture A.sub.600 was observed during production of olivetol and CBG following introduction of hexanoic acid at 36 hours, until hexanoic acid concentrations were depleted.

(130) Expression of Cytosolic and Membrane-Bound Prenyltransferase

(131) C. sativa prenyltransferase is a membrane-bound plant protein while AltPT is a cytosolic bacterial protein. Application of AltPT in S. cerevisiae rather than C. sativa prenyltransferase provides greater protein expression levels in the yeast cells. Each of HB1, HB6, HB7, and HB13 as shown in Table 5 were grown in YNB, 2% glucose, and 1.6 g/L 4DO* overnight. The resulting culture, after being grown overnight, was normalized to 1.0 A.sub.600 and then grown for four hours in YNB, 2% glucose, and 1.6 g/L 4DO*. Fluorescence was measured from each culture suspension using a BD Acuri C6 flow cytometer.

(132) HB1 expresses green fluorescent protein (“GFP”). Each of HB6 and HB7 express a GFP-prenyltransferase fusion protein. Neither HB6 nor HB7 include genes from the pDiPKS or pH1OAS plasmids. Correspondingly neither HB6 nor HB7 expresses a polyketide synthase gene or includes all the enzymes to complete the biosynthetic pathways in any of FIG. 4, 6, or 9.

(133) FIG. 16 shows mean fluorescence levels from cell culture samples of HB13 (“negative”), HB1 (“positive”), HB6 (“Prenyltransferase_C. sativa”), and HB7 (“Prenyltransferase_Alt”). The fluorescence levels correspond to protein expression levels, showing relative expression levels of the C. sativa prenyltransferase by HB6 and of AltPT by HB7. The ordinarily membrane-bound C. sativa prenyltransferase has low expression in the cytosol of S. cerevisiae. The cytosolic AltPT is expressed in the cytosol of S. cerevisiae at a higher level than the ordinarily membrane-bound C. sativa prenyltransferase.

Example I

(134) The yeast strain HB37 as described above in Table 7 was cultured in the YNB+2% glucose+1.6 g/L 4DO*+0.5 mM hexanoic acid media. Production of CBG from glucose and hexanoic acid was observed, demonstrating direct production in yeast of CBG.

(135) CBG was produced at a concentration of 10 μg/L with 0.85 mM hexanoic acid. After optimizing the hexanoic acid feeding and growth conditions, 50 μg/L of CBG was produced with 0.5 mM hexanoic acid.

Example II

(136) The yeast strain HB84 as described above in Table 7 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of meCBG from raffinose and galactose was observed, demonstrating direct production in yeast of meCBG without hexanoic acid. The meCBG was produced at 42.63 mg/L. The yield of meCBG produced by HB84 represents a nearly 1,000× increase compared with the yield of CBG from HB37.

(137) FIG. 17 shows the yields of meCBG from HB84 (“HB_CBG_me”) in Example II compared with yields of CBG from HB37 (“CBG_C_sativa”) in Example I.

Example III

(138) The yeast strain HB80 as described above in Table 6 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of methyl-olivetol from raffinose and galactose was observed, demonstrating direct production in yeast of methyl-olivetol without conversion to meCBG, as HB80 lacks AltPT. The methyl-olivetol was produced at concentrations of 3.259 mg/L Conversion to meCBG would be expected to follow in a strain that includes the features of HB80 and AltPT or another prenyltransferase, such as HB139.

Example IV

(139) The yeast strain HB80A as described above in Table 6 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of both olivetol and methyl-olivetol from raffinose and galactose, catalyzed by DiPKS.sup.G1516D; G1518A was observed. This data demonstrates direct production in yeast of both olivetol and methyl-olivetol without inclusion of hexanoic acid. Conversion to CBG and meCBG did not follow as HB80A lacks AltPT. Conversion to CBG and meCBG would be expected to following a strain that included the features of HB80A and AltPT or another prenyltransferase, such as by transforming HB80A with pAltPT.

(140) FIG. 18 shows concentrations of methyl-olivetol produced by HB80 (“Methyl_Olivetol HB80”) from Example III, and of both olivetol and methyl-olivetol produced by HB80A (“Methyl_Olivetol HB80A” and “Olivetol HB80A”, respectively). Samples of culture were taken at 72 hours. HB80A produces a majority of methyl-olivetol (1.4 mg methyl-olivetol per L of culture compared with 0.010 mg per L of culture olivetol), and produced less methyl-olivetol and olivetol combined than methyl-olivetol that is produced by HB80 (3.26 mg/L).

Example V

(141) The yeast strain HB98 as described above in Table 6 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of methyl-olivetol from raffinose and galactose, catalyzed by DiPKS, was observed. This data demonstrates increased methyl-olivetol production compared with HB80 as described in Example III, and also without inclusion of hexanoic acid. Conversion to meCBG did not follow as HB80A lacks AltPT. Conversion to meCBG would be expected to following a strain that included the features of HB98 and AltPT or another prenyltransferase, such as by transforming HB98 with pAltPT or by transforming HB84 with pNPGa.

(142) FIG. 19 shows concentrations of methyl-olivetol produced by HB80 (“Methyl_Olivetol HB80”) from Example III, and of methyl-olivetol produced by HB98 (“Methyl_Olivetol HB98”) from Example V. Samples of culture were taken at 72 hours. HB98 produced 29.85 mg/L methyl-olivetol while HB80 produced only 3.26 mg methyl-olivetol per L of culture. HB98 produced nearly 10× as much methyl-olivetol as HB80.

Example VI

(143) The yeast strain HB102 as described above in Table 6 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of methyl-olivetol from raffinose and galactose was observed, demonstrating an increased production in yeast of methyl-olivetol at 42.44 mg/L as compared to strain HB98, which produced only 29.85 mg/L methyl-olivetol. This demonstrated that the genomically integrated version of NpgA is functional. Conversion to meCBG did not follow as HB102 lacks AltPT. Conversion to meCBG would be expected to following a strain that included the features of HB102 and AltPT or another prenyltransferase, such as HB105.

(144) FIG. 20 shows concentrations of methyl-olivetol produced by HB102 (“Methyl_olivetol HB102”) from Example VI as compared to the production of methyl-olivetol from strain HB98 in Example V (“Methyl_olivetol HB98”).

Example VII

(145) The yeast strain HB105 as described above in Table 7 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of meCBG from raffinose and galactose was observed at titres of 66.3 mg/L, demonstrating an increased production of meCBG compared with the yield of CBG from HB84. This demonstrates the positive effect of the PDH bypass and the integrated NpgA on meCBG titres.

(146) FIG. 21 shows titres of meCBG produced by HB105 (“Methyl_CBG HB105”) from Example VII as compared to the production of meCBG from strain HB84 in Example II (“Methyl_CBG HB84”).

Example VIII

(147) The yeast strain HB135 as described above in Table 6 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of olivetol from raffinose and galactose was observed, demonstrating an production in yeast of olivetol without any hexanoic acid and at high titres of 49.24 mg/L and no production of methyl-olivetol. This is comparable to the production of methyl-olivetol by strain HB102 demonstrating that the mutation of DIPKS was effective in production of Olivetol as opposed to methyl-Olivetol. Conversion to CBG and meCBG did not follow as HB135 lacks AltPT. Conversion to CBG and meCBG would be expected to following a strain that includes the features of HB135 and AltPT or another prenyltransferase.

(148) FIG. 22 shows concentrations of olivetol and methyl-olivetol produced by HB135 (“Methyl_olivetol HB135” and “Olivetol HB135 respectively) from Example VIII as compared to the production of methyl-olivetol from strain HB102 in Example VI (“Methyl_olivetol HB102”).

Example IX

(149) The yeast strains HB137 and HB138 as described above in Table 6 were cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of olivetol from raffinose and galactose was observed in both strains. Strain HB137 produced 61.26 mg/L of olivetol and strain HB138 produced 74.26 mg/L of olivetol demonstrating the positive effect of Maf1 integration and Acc1-promoter swap on olivetol titres. Conversion to CBG did not follow as HB137 and HB138 lack AltPT. Conversion to CBG would be expected to following strains that included the features of HB137 and HB138 and AltPT or another prenyltransferase.

(150) FIG. 23 shows the concentrations of olivetol produced by HB137 (“Olivetol HB137”) and HB138 (“Olivetol HB138”) from Example IX as compared to olivetol produced by HB135 (“Olivetol HB135”) in Example VIII.

Example X

(151) The yeast strain HB139 as described above in Table 7 was cultured in the YNB+2% raffinose+2% galactose+1.6 g/L 4DO* media. Production of CBG from raffinose and galactose directly was observed at titres of 0.03 mg/L. This is much lower than the titre of meCBG produced by strain HB105.

(152) FIG. 24 shows the concentration of CBG produced by HB139 directly from galactose and raffinose (“CBG HB139”) from Example X as compared to the production of meCBG (“meCBG HB105”) by HB105 from Example VII and production of CBG by HB37 (“CBG HB37”) in Example I.

REFERENCES

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Examples Only

(154) In the preceding description, for purposes of explanation, numerous details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that these specific details are not required.

(155) The above-described embodiments are intended to be examples only. Alterations, modifications and variations can be effected to the particular embodiments by those of skill in the art without departing from the scope, which is defined solely by the claims appended hereto.