QUANTUM DOT NANOFLUIDS

Abstract

In one embodiment, a method for recovery of an oil from a porous medium comprises contacting the porous medium with an aqueous nanofluid, solubilizing oil from the porous medium via the nanoparticles, thereby forming a dispersion comprising the oil and the aqueous nanofluid, and collecting at least some of the dispersion. The aqueous nanofluid may contain a combination of amphiphilic quantum dots and hydrophilic quantum dots, in a continuous phase. At least 90% of the quantum dot nanoparticles may have an aspect ratio of from 1:1 to 1:6. The dispersion comprising the oil and the aqueous nanofluid may be stabilized via synergistic effects resulting from the combination of amphiphilic quantum dots and hydrophilic quantum dots. In another embodiment, a method for recovery of an oil from a porous medium whereby the quantum dots are added to foaming surfactants to enhance foam lamella stability under reservoir conditions and provide conformance and mobility control in porous media and hydraulic fractures.

Claims

1. A method for recovery of an oil from a porous medium, the method comprising: contacting the porous medium with an aqueous nanofluid, wherein the aqueous nanofluid contains quantum dot nanoparticles in a continuous phase; wherein at least 90% of the quantum dot nanoparticles have an aspect ratio of 1:1 to 6:1; in response to the contacting step, mobilizing oil from the porous medium via the nanoparticles, thereby forming a dispersion comprising the oil and the aqueous nanofluid; and collecting at least some of the dispersion.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles in the aqueous nanofluid include hydrophilic quantum dot nanoparticles.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles in the aqueous nanofluid include amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles, and wherein each amphiphilic quantum dot comprises at least one hydrophobic functional group.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the nanoparticles in the aqueous nanofluid comprise: hydrophilic quantum dot nanoparticles; and amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles; and wherein the step of forming a dispersion comprises creating a closely-packed interfacial layer around each of a plurality of oil droplets, wherein each closely-packed layer comprises: amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles; and hydrophilic quantum dot nanoparticles interspersed with the amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the nanoparticles in the aqueous nanofluid comprise: 20 to 80 wt % hydrophilic quantum dot nanoparticles; and 20 to 80 wt % amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles.

6. (canceled)

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting step comprises flowing the aqueous nanofluid through the porous medium.

8. (canceled)

9. (canceled)

10. The method of claim 1, comprising separating the oil from the dispersion.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the mineral substrate is a silicate-rich rock or a carbonate-rich rock.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the oil is crude oil.

13. The method of claim 3, wherein the at least one hydrophobic functional group comprises a hydrocarbon chain.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the hydrocarbon chain has 3 to 30 carbons.

15. The method of claim 3, wherein the hydrophobic functional group comprises an alkylamine.

16. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles have a specific surface area of 10,000 m.sup.2/g to 40,000 m.sup.2/g.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles have a molecular weight of from 700 to 900 amu.

18. (canceled)

19. The method of claim 1, wherein at least 90% of the nanoparticles have a diameter between 1.5 to 5.5 nm.

20. A method of making amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles, the method comprising: providing a coal-based starting material; intercalating the starting material with an oxidizing agent to form hydrophilic quantum dots; adsorbing the quantum dots onto solid microspheres, via hydrogen bonding, in the presence of water; contacting the adsorbed quantum dots with a reactant to add a hydrophobic functional group to the adsorbed quantum dots to form functionalized adsorbed quantum dots; removing the functionalized adsorbed quantum dots from the solid microspheres, thereby liberating amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles.

21. (canceled)

22. The method of claim 20, wherein the hydrophobic functional group comprises an alkylamine.

23. (canceled)

24. (canceled)

25. The method of claim 20, wherein the oxidizing agent comprises hydrogen peroxide.

26. A surfactant quantum dot nanosphere formulation comprising: 20 to 80 wt % hydrophilic quantum dot nanoparticles; and 20 to 80 wt % amphiphilic quantum dot nanoparticles wherein each amphiphilic quantum dot comprises at least one hydrophobic functional group.

27. The surfactant quantum dot nanosphere formulation of claim 26, wherein at least 90% of the quantum dot nanoparticles have an aspect ratio of 1:1 to 6:1.

28. The surfactant quantum dot nanosphere formulation of claim 26, wherein at least 90% of the quantum dot nanoparticles have a diameter between 1.5 to 5.5 nm.

29-39. (canceled)

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0037] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0038] FIG. 1 is a schematic of EQD synthesis.

[0039] FIG. 2 shows FTIR spectra for QD and EQD.

[0040] FIG. 3 shows absorption and emission spectra for QD and EQD. Inset: Sample images under UV light.

[0041] FIG. 4A is a TEM micrograph of QD.

[0042] FIG. 4B is a TEM micrograph of EQD.

[0043] FIG. 4C is a HRTEM micrograph of QD.

[0044] FIG. 4D is a HRTEM micrograph of EQD.

[0045] FIG. 4E shows the particle size distribution of QD and EQD.

[0046] FIG. 5 shows MALDI-TOF mass spectra for QD (top) and EQD (bottom).

[0047] FIG. 6 shows the variation of oil/brine IFT with different ratios of QD and EQD.

[0048] FIG. 7 is an illustration of the interfacial behavior of nanofluids with different ratios of QD and EQD.

[0049] FIG. 8A is a schematic of the Interfacial film test: Reference water.

[0050] FIG. 8B is a schematic of the Interfacial film test: Hydrophilic side of EQD on a substrate.

[0051] FIG. 8C is a schematic of the Interfacial film test: Hydrophobic side of EQD on a substrate.

[0052] FIG. 9A shows contact angle between water drop and quartz substrate from interfacial film test: Reference water.

[0053] FIG. 9B shows contact angle between water drop and quartz substrate from interfacial film test: Hydrophilic side of EQD on a substrate.

[0054] FIG. 9C shows contact angle between water drop and quartz substrate from interfacial film test: Hydrophobic side of EQD on a substrate.

[0055] FIG. 10 shows the contact angle between oil drop and quartz substrate before and after nanofluid treatment.

[0056] FIG. 11 shows contact angle between oil drop and calcite substrate before and after nanofluid treatment.

[0057] FIG. 12A is a SEM image of adsorbed nanofluid on quartz substrate.

[0058] FIG. 12B is a SEM image of adsorbed nanofluid on calcite substrate.

[0059] FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of the experimental core flooding setup.

[0060] FIG. 14A shows recovery curves for Berea sandstone after brine and nanofluid flooding.

[0061] FIG. 14B shows recovery curves for Edwards carbonate after brine and nanofluid flooding.

[0062] FIG. 14C shows pressure drop across Berea sandstone after brine and nanofluid flooding.

[0063] FIG. 14D shows pressure drop across Edwards carbonate after brine and nanofluid flooding.

[0064] FIG. 15 shows the experimental setup for the micro-CT core flooding.

[0065] FIG. 16 is a schematic diagram of the micro-CT core flooding procedure.

[0066] FIG. 17A shows the saturation profile for water flood.

[0067] FIG. 17B shows the saturation profile for nanofluid flood.

[0068] FIG. 18A shows contact angle distribution on quartz before and after water flood.

[0069] FIG. 18B shows contact angle distribution on carbonate before and after water flood.

[0070] FIG. 18C shows contact angle distribution on feldspar before and after water flood.

[0071] FIG. 19A shows contact angle distribution on quartz before and after nanofluid flood.

[0072] FIG. 19B shows contact angle distribution on carbonate before and after nanofluid flood.

[0073] FIG. 19C shows contact angle distribution on feldspar before and after nanofluid flood.

[0074] FIG. 20 shows the schematic of the QD-surfactant formulation at the foam lamella.

[0075] FIG. 21A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying QD concentrations in a water-wet system.

[0076] FIG. 21B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying QD concentrations in a water-wet system.

[0077] FIG. 22A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying surfactant (ACS) concentrations in a water-wet system.

[0078] FIG. 22B shows the and apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying surfactant (ACS) concentrations in a water-wet system.

[0079] FIG. 23A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying gas fractions in a water-wet system.

[0080] FIG. 23B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying gas fractions in a water-wet system.

[0081] FIG. 24A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying flow rates in a water-wet system.

[0082] FIG. 24B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying flow rates in a water-wet system.

[0083] FIG. 25A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying QD concentrations in an oil-wet system.

[0084] FIG. 25B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying QD concentrations in an oil-wet system.

[0085] FIG. 26A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying surfactant (ACS) concentrations in an oil-wet system.

[0086] FIG. 26B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying surfactant (ACS) concentrations in an oil-wet system.

[0087] FIG. 27A shows the half-lives for foam generated using varying gas fractions in an oil-wet system.

[0088] FIG. 27B shows the apparent viscosities for foam generated using varying gas fractions in an oil-wet system.

[0089] FIG. 28A shows a TEM micrograph for an emulsion of oil with surfactant and QD.

[0090] FIG. 28B shows a TEM micrograph for an emulsion of surfactant with oil.

[0091] FIG. 29 shows the size distribution of particles in an emulsion of surfactant with oil compared with particles in an emulsion of surfactant with oil and QD.

[0092] FIG. 30A shows the TEM micrographs for spherical micelle structure in pure surfactant and water.

[0093] FIG. 30B shows the TEM micrographs for spherical micelle structure in surfactant+QD.

[0094] FIG. 30C shows the TEM micrographs for peapod-like structure in surfactant and QD.

[0095] FIG. 30D shows the TEM micrographs for eyebrow-like structure in surfactant and oil.

[0096] FIG. 30E shows the TEM micrographs for eyebrow-like structure in surfactant, oil, and QD.

[0097] FIG. 31A shows the size distribution of spherical micelles.

[0098] FIG. 31B shows the size distribution of peapod-like micelles.

STATEMENTS REGARDING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND NOMENCLATURE

[0099] In general, the terms and phrases used herein have their art-recognized meaning, which can be found by reference to standard texts, journal references and contexts known to those skilled in the art. The following definitions are provided to clarify their specific use in the context of the invention.

[0100] In an embodiment, a composition or compound of the invention, such as an alloy or precursor to an alloy, is isolated or substantially purified. In an embodiment, an isolated or purified compound is at least partially isolated or substantially purified as would be understood in the art. In an embodiment, a substantially purified composition, compound or formulation of the invention has a chemical purity of 95%, optionally for some applications 99%, optionally for some applications 99.9%, optionally for some applications 99.99%, and optionally for some applications 99.999% pure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0101] In the following description, numerous specific details of the devices, device components, and methods of the present invention are set forth in order to provide a thorough explanation of the precise nature of the invention. It will be apparent, however, to those of skill in the art that the invention can be practiced without these specific details.

[0102] To meet the projected world growing demand for fossil fuels and the increasing challenges in exploring and developing new oil fields, novel, and cost-effective carbonaceous nanofluids were developed and are described below.

[0103] In one embodiment, a nanofluid comprises (a) hydrophilic graphene quantum dots; (b) amphiphilic graphene quantum dots; and (c) brine. In one embodiment, the weight ratio of hydrophilic quantum dots and amphiphilic quantum dots in the nanofluid is about 1.1.

[0104] The nanofluid formulations of the invention may be particularly effective in silicate-rich rocks. It has been discovered that they possess dual properties of surfactants and nanoparticles with minimum retention in sandstones.

[0105] Quantum dots are produced from coal by a liquid exfoliation method with an average yield of 62 wt % (310 mg of QD out of 500 mg of coal). The amorphous carbon within the coal structure is relatively easy to oxidize, resulting in nanometer-sized graphene quantum dots (average diameter of 3 nm) with oxygen-rich active edge sites. They have an average density of 0.176 g/ml, molecular weight between 700 and 900 amu, specific surface area from about 15,000 to 38,000 m.sup.2/g. They are almost spherical with an aspect ratio of 1:1. QDs are soluble in brine of various salinities and stable at elevated temperatures.

[0106] As used herein, “hydrophilic quantum dots” (sometimes referred to herein simply as quantum dots (QD)) are high mobility carbonaceous nanoparticles with the ability to alter wettability by adsorbing on the surface of rocks. Because of their negative surface charge, their application may be more suitable in sandstones, where they adsorb moderately through hydrogen bonding.

[0107] As used herein, “amphiphilic quantum dots” (sometimes referred to herein simply as engineered quantum dots (EQD)) are quantum dots whose surface has been at least partially functionalized. In one embodiment, the amphiphilic quantum dots are functionalized with alkylamines using a solid template, in order to confer them with amphiphilic properties of surfactants. The side of amphiphilic quantum dots that is protected by the template remains hydrophilic due to the presence of oxygen-rich groups, whereas the other side that reacts with the alkylamine becomes hydrophobic. As a result, amphiphilic quantum dots contain 86% less oxygen than hydrophilic quantum dots.

[0108] Amphiphilic quantum dots can lower the oil/brine interfacial tension and stabilize Pickering emulsions but have a negligible impact on rock wettability due to the steric hindrance caused by the aliphatic chains in their hydrophobic side.

[0109] Nanofluids containing mixtures of hydrophilic quantum dots and amphiphilic quantum dots display synergistic effects at oil/brine interfaces. Hydrophilic quantum dots molecules help reduce the repulsive forces between neighboring amphiphilic quantum dots molecules by positioning themselves in between. The optimum interface configuration is obtained when equal amounts of hydrophilic quantum dots and amphiphilic quantum dots are used in the nanofluid.

[0110] Nanofluids containing hydrophilic quantum dots and amphiphilic quantum dots at a weight ratio of 1:1 provide mixed-wet conditions that, together with IFT reduction, result in effective mobilization and solubilization of oil in porous media.

[0111] The amount of nanofluid to be injected into oil reservoirs is based on a variety of factors, including the type and composition of a subsurface geological formation; the amount of oil; and the brine chemistry. Thus, the amount of nanofluid to be used for enhanced oil recovery or aquifer remediation may vary but is usually low.

[0112] Brine is a solution of one or several salts in water. Brine may comprise sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium bromide (NaBr), sodium iodide (NaI), potassium chloride (KCI), potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI), calcium chloride (CaCl.sub.2)), magnesium chloride (MgCl.sub.2), calcium bromide (CaBr.sub.2), and calcium iodide (CaI.sub.2). Most preferably, brine comprises sodium chloride (NaCl) and/or calcium chloride (CaCl.sub.2)). The brine may also comprise MgSO.sub.4, NaHCO.sub.3, and other salts. The salt concentration may vary from 10 ppm to fully saturated brine. The density of the brine may vary from 1.0 g/cm.sup.3 to 2.4 g/cm.sup.3.

[0113] The invention can be further understood by the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLE 1—SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION, AND TESTING OF AQUEOUS NANOFLUIDS AS EOR AGENTS

Synthesis of Quantum Dots

[0114] Graphene Quantum Dots were synthesized from Wyoming Powder River Basin (PRB) coal using a liquid exfoliation method..sup.31 The coal was intercalated using hydrogen peroxide solution (30 wt % H.sub.2O.sub.2 in water), which is an oxidizing agent that helps break the large coal molecules into smaller quantum dots. 500 mg of coal was added to 100 mL of H.sub.2O.sub.2 and sonicated for 2 hours in a water bath sonicator. The mixture was transferred to a round bottom flask and heated to 80° C. for 2 hours with reflux and continuous stirring. The color of the solution turned from black/brown to bright yellow, indicating the formation of the hydrophilic quantum dots. The hydrophilic quantum dots were filtered through a 0.2 μm Teflon filter paper. They were kept overnight in a freezer at −30° C. then freeze-dried at −82° C. and 0.003 bar vacuum for three days. The yield of the quantum dots was about 310 mg, which constituted 62 wt % of the coal precursor. The hydrophilic quantum dots were dispersed in distilled water at 0.1 wt % concentration using a Q-Sonica probe sonicator with 15 seconds on-off pulses.

Synthesis of Amphiphilic Quantum Dots

[0115] The synthesis procedure for amphiphilic quantum dots is illustrated in FIG. 1. The quantum dots were functionalized by dodecylamine or DDA (>99.5%, Sigma Aldrich) using soluble starch (Sigma Aldrich) as a solid template. More specifically, 100 cm.sup.3 of QD dispersion (1 mg/ml) were added to a mixture of 20 g soluble starch in 250 cm.sup.3 DI water. This mixture was stirred for 12 hours to allow the QD to adsorb on the starch microspheres by hydrogen bonding. The starch microspheres were then filtered with an 8 μm filter paper to remove the unabsorbed QD. It was further washed with 100 cm.sup.3 ethanol (Sigma Aldrich). The starch microspheres were then re-dispersed in 250 cm.sup.3 ethanol. 300 mg of DDA in 50 cm.sup.3 ethanol solution was added to the starch, and the mixture was stirred for 20 hours to allow the amine to react with the exposed side of QD. This mixture was then filtered with 8 μm filter paper and washed with an excess of ethanol to remove the unreacted DDA. The QD-DDA coated starch microspheres were then subjected to heating (60° C.) and sonication cycles to detach the QD-DDA from the starch microspheres. This fluid system separated into two phases overnight. The starch microspheres settled in the bottom while the amphiphilic quantum dots remained dispersed in ethanol in the top layer. The dispersion was separated and dried to obtain the amphiphilic quantum dots nanoparticles. This approach was inspired by a previous study on amphiphilic Janus nanosheets (AJN)..sup.32 However, unlike AJN, which are sheet-like, amphiphilic quantum dots are almost spherical.

[0116] Characterization

[0117] Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was first adopted to characterize the QDs and amphiphilic quantum dots using Nicolet IS-50 spectroscope. FIG. 2 shows that the QD mostly consists of C═C (aromatic), as suggested by the peak at 1410 cm.sup.−1, thus confirming the graphitic backbone. The oxidative exfoliation of coal to quantum dots helps eliminate most of the aliphatic chains present in coal molecules. However, the amphiphilic quantum dots exhibit substantial C—H stretch peaks at 2850 cm.sup.−1 and 2920 cm.sup.−1 due to the presence of dodecyl chains. These chains also create C—H bending peaks at 1460 cm.sup.−1. The carbonyl groups in QD are due to carboxylic acids, as confirmed by the carbonyl peak at 1700 cm.sup.−1. On the other hand, the carbonyl peak in amphiphilic quantum dots is mainly due to the presence of amide groups and thus is blue-shifted to about 1600 cm.sup.−1. A small N—H bending peak can be seen at 1560 cm.sup.−1, thus further confirming the amide bond formation. In addition to the C═C aromatic and carbonyl peak (carbonylic acid), the QD shows a C—O stretch peak at 1160 cm.sup.−1 suggesting the presence of alcohol. QD shows H-Bonding in the 2500 cm.sup.−1 to 3500 cm.sup.−1 region, but the H-bonding is suppressed in amphiphilic quantum dots due to the long dodecyl chains.

[0118] The absorption spectra for QD and amphiphilic quantum dots are provided in FIG. 3 using Agilent CARY 4000 UV-Vis spectroscope. The intensities are comparable, given the same concentration of 0.1 wt %. Both nanofluids absorbed ultraviolet light between 200 nm and 300 nm, which can be assigned to the non-bonding to π* transitions of the C═O bonds. The peaks at 271 nm and 237 nm for QD and amphiphilic quantum dots, respectively, are due to the π to π* transitions caused by the C═C bonds. The high delocalization of electrons in the graphitic backbone and carbonyl bonds make QD absorb at a relatively high wavelength. On the other hand, the addition of the dodecyl chains in the case of amphiphilic quantum dots lowers the delocalization of electrons in the molecule. The amphiphilic quantum dots emitted at a lower wavelength of about 405 nm, compared to 455 nm with QD, which explains their blue color under UV light.

[0119] FIGS. 4A and 4B represent the TEM micrographs for QD and amphiphilic quantum dots, respectively, obtained from FEI Titan Environmental Transmission Microscope (E-TEM). Lattice fringes under higher resolution (HR) indicate the crystalline nature of the samples (FIGS. 4C and 4D). The lattice spacing distance in both QD and amphiphilic quantum dots is 0.24 nm ascribed to the (1120) plane..sup.33 The QD are very rich with oxygen and nanoscale in size. Due to these reasons, the QD burn very quickly within a few minutes due to the strong electron beam, making it difficult to obtain a diffraction pattern. From the images, the QD and amphiphilic quantum dots appear to be spherical in shape with similar sizes of a few nanometers. The particle size distribution, as shown in FIG. 4E was obtained from about 150 particles of QD and amphiphilic quantum dots. Both the QD and the amphiphilic quantum dots have a narrow size distribution, with most particles of about 2.5 nm to 3.5 nm in size. This confirms that the addition of dodecyl chains in the case of amphiphilic quantum dots does not significantly increase the size of the quantum dots.

[0120] The elemental composition of QD and amphiphilic quantum dots was obtained using CE Elantech Flash Smart elemental analyzer and is listed in Table 1. The QD are mostly composed of carbon and oxygen, with 4 wt % hydrogen. The small quantity of hydrogen indicates that the QD are highly aromatic. Whereas, the high amount of oxygen-containing groups are responsible for their stability in high salinity water. The trace amounts of nitrogen and sulfur are inherited from the parent coal. After the reaction with dodecylamine, we can see an increase in carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen content in the amphiphilic quantum dots with a marked reduction in the amount of oxygen. This confirms the modification of the QD to amphiphilic quantum dots. However, the graphitic backbone is still preserved.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Elemental composition of QD and EQD Sample Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur Oxygen QD 1.36 43.22 4.00 0.87 50.54 EQD 5.04 74.47 12.89 0.13 7.47

[0121] Density, an intrinsic property of the QD, was measured by weighing QD in a 1 cm.sup.3 volumetric flask. The QD were packed tightly in the flask to minimize the amount of air. The density was measured to be 0.176 g/cm.sup.3.

[0122] The molecular weight of the QD and amphiphilic quantum dots was measured by Shimadzu Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF). The amphiphilic quantum dots samples were run with and without the α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA) matrix. However, no significant changes were observed in the data. Hence no matrix was used in the measurements. FIG. 5 shows the MALDI-TOF mass spectra for QD and amphiphilic quantum dots. Both have prominent peaks around 740 amu, which may represent the majority of the molecules. The spectrum of QD has some peaks at low mass to charge ratios, which correspond to fragmented or smaller moieties. The amphiphilic quantum dots exhibit higher intensity of masses around 700-900 amu, as compared to that of the QD. It is likely that the amphiphilic quantum dots are fragmented during the ionization process, losing the dodecyl chains.

[0123] Surface Properties

[0124] The surface properties of QD were predicted using the known values of molecular weight and structure shape analysis from TEM. Assuming a cylindrical shape and knowing the average diameter and molecular weight, surface area, specific surface area (SSA), an aspect ratio can be calculated for varying thicknesses using the following equations.

[00001]$\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Area}=2\pi \mathrm{rh}+2\pi r^2$$\mathrm{Specific}\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Area}=\frac{\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Area}}{\mathrm{Molecular}\mathrm{Weight}/N_A}$$\mathrm{Aspect}\mathrm{Ratio}=\frac{\mathrm{Diameter}}{\mathrm{Height}}$

[0125] Previous studies revealed that the thickness of QD varies between 0.5 nm to 3 nm..sup.34,35 Table 2 shows the calculated surface properties for QD for varied thicknesses. Due to the small size, the QD have a large surface area ranging from 18 nm.sup.2 to 47 nm.sup.2. The nano-size also endows the QD with a large specific surface area of about 15000 m.sup.2/g to 38000 m.sup.2/g. Also, as the thickness increases, the aspect ratio decreases. In the cases where the diameter is equal to the thickness, the particles may look spherical due to an aspect ratio of 1:1.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Surface properties of QD Diameter Thickness Surface Area Specific Surface Area Aspect (nm) (nm) (nm.sup.2) (m.sup.2/g) Ratio 3 0.5 18.85 15383.03 6 3 1 23.56 19228.78 3 3 1.5 28.27 23074.54 2 3 2 32.99 26920.3 1.5 3 2.5 37.70 30766.06 1.22 3 3 42.41 34611.81 1 3 3.5 47.13 38457.57 0.85

[0126] The zeta potential of QD, amphiphilic quantum dots, and their mixtures was measured in water with NanoBrook Omni analyzer (Brookhaven Instruments) to estimate the surface charge on each nanoparticle. From Table 3, it can be seen that QD is negatively charged due to the carboxylic acid and hydroxyl groups. Conversely, the surface charge of amphiphilic quantum dots is highly positive following the addition of the long-chained amides. The surface charge of the mixtures falls between those of QD and amphiphilic quantum dots, with QD:EQD=1:1 being almost neutral.

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Zeta potential of QD, amphiphilic quantum dots, and their mixtures Sample Zeta Potential (mV) QD −14.76 QD:EQD = 4:1 −4.11 QD:EQD = 1:1 1.64 QD:EQD = 1:4 8.92 EQD 58.85

[0127] Interfacial Tension

[0128] Interfacial tension measurements were conducted using a Krüss spinning drop tensiometer to observe the impact of these mixtures on IFT between crude oil and water. Gibbs crude oil from Minnelusa formation in Wyoming was used as the oil phase in all the experiments. The properties of this oil can be found elsewhere..sup.36 FIG. 6 shows that the highly hydrophilic QDs were able to lower the IFT between water and oil from 19.6 mN/m to about 7 mN/m, whereas the EQDs reduced it to about 4.9 mN/m. The amphiphilic quantum dots were better at reducing IFT because of their amphiphilic nature, however, the steric repulsion caused by the long chains forced them to continuously re-arrange at the interface. As a result, the IFT took a long time to stabilize. All mixtures reduced the IFT to a lower extent than QD and amphiphilic quantum dots because of synergistic effects between the two components. More specifically, QD molecules helped reduce the repulsive forces between neighboring EQD molecules by positioning themselves in between. In the case of QD:EQD=1:1, the QD and amphiphilic quantum dots arrange themselves in an ordered alternating fashion to minimize the repulsive forces between the chains and maximize IFT reduction, as seen in the schematic of FIG. 7. This arrangement led to the formation of an in-situ surfactant-like film at the interface. The dodecyl tails from the EQD served as the hydrophobic part, while the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups from QD served as the hydrophilic part. Due to its neutral surface charge and lowest IFT, QD:EQD=1:1 mixture was selected for further investigation and core flooding experiments.

[0129] Interfacial Test

[0130] The amphiphilic nature of QD:EQD=1:1 mixture was investigated using the interfacial film test displayed in FIG. 8. Quartz chips were placed at the bottom of three vials: A, B and, C. Vial A was filled with dichloromethane and DI water. Vial C was filled with Toluene and DI water. Dichloromethane and toluene were used as the oil phase. Dichloromethane is denser than water and stays at the bottom of the vial, whereas toluene is lighter than water and stays on top of the water. Vial B was filled with DI water as a reference. 5 mL of 0.1% concentration of QD:EQD=1:1 dispersion was injected into the DI water phase in vials A and C.

[0131] The nanofluid showed affinity to the interface due to the presence of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic functional groups in the molecules. This interfacial film could then be isolated and tested for amphiphilicity. For the test, three vials were used. Each vial had a clean quartz substrate placed in the bottom. Vial 1 had only water as a reference. Vial 2 had water as the aqueous phase and dichloromethane as the oil phase. Since dichloromethane is denser than water, the water stayed on the top while the dichloromethane stayed at the bottom. Vial 3 had toluene as the oil phase and water as the aqueous phase. Since toluene is lighter, it remained on top of the water. The QD:EQD=1:1 mixture was injected into vials 2 and 3 and allowed to sit overnight. Both QDs and amphiphilic quantum dots have interfacial properties and migrated to the interface where they arranged themselves in almost an alternating pattern to form an interfacial amphiphilic film, as seen in FIG. 8. This amphiphilic interfacial film had its hydrophilic side towards the aqueous phase and hydrophobic side towards the oil phase. Thus, the hydrophilic and hydrophobic sides are facing upwards in vials 2 and 3, respectively. The films were carefully collected with the quartz substrate preplaced inside the vials and dried with air.

[0132] The contact angles between a water drop and the quartz substrates collected from the interfacial film test were measured and are presented in FIG. 9. The angle for the reference case (vial 1) was 30.08°, indicating the wettability of the pure quartz surface. The contact angle on the hydrophilic side of the film (vial 2) was measured to be 20.61°, while that on the hydrophobic side (vial 3) was 69.44°. The hydrophilic side had a contact angle lower than the reference case, while the hydrophobic side had a contact angle higher than the reference case. This confirmed that the film formed at the interface was amphiphilic in nature and is responsible for the IFT reduction.

[0133] Wettability Alteration

[0134] The effect of QD, amphiphilic quantum dots, and QD:EQD=1:1 mixture on wettability alteration was tested using quartz and calcite chips to mimic sandstone and carbonate surfaces. The chips were first aged for one week in oil at 90° C. to become oil-wet. The contact angle of an oil drop in brine was measured on these chips. Thereafter, the chips were immersed in the QD-based nanofluids for 24 hours at 50° C., and the contact angle measurements were repeated after nanofluid treatment. FIGS. 10 and 11 show these angles before and after nanofluid treatment, and reveal that oil interacted differently with both surfaces. On quartz, QD reduced the contact angle from 149.47° to 89.99°, whereas amphiphilic quantum dots hardly changed it. The QD:EQD=1:1 mixture provided a contact angle between the previous two values, with a change from 162.53° to 111.80°. Calcite surface displayed a similar trend and wettability alteration with all three nanofluids. QD significantly reduced the contact angle from 149.04° to 42.51°, amphiphilic quantum dots slightly altered it, and the QD:EQD=1:1 mixture lowered it by about 80°.

[0135] The amphiphilic quantum dots had little effect on wettability because of their hydrophobic dodecyl groups, which provided steric hindrance towards the mineral surfaces. The QDs, on the other hand, showed the highest wettability alteration towards the water-wet state on quartz and calcite. Although the trends were similar on both surfaces, the mechanism of wettability alteration is different. On quartz, the driving factor for wettability alteration is hydrogen bonding between the silanol groups of quartz and the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups of QD. The mixture showed a neutral-wet state due to the presence of both components. In the case of calcite, adsorption is likely due to electrostatic interactions between negatively charged QDs and positively calcite surface..sup.37 The neutrally charged mixture of QD and amphiphilic quantum dots showed a change in wettability but to a lower extent than the pure QD.

[0136] Adsorption

[0137] Dynamic flow tests of nanofluids on quartz and calcite substrates were performed to qualitatively evaluate their adsorption. The tests were conducted by flowing the nanofluid over quartz and calcite substrates at ambient conditions. In all experiments, quartz and calcite chips were placed in a closed flow chamber. Distilled water was first injected to wash the surfaces of the substrates. Thereafter, the nanofluid was injected at a flow rate of 0.1 mL/min. Substrates were collected after nanofluid injection, dried under vacuum, and then imaged using a FEI Helios Nanolab 600 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Through the Lens Detector (TLD) was selected to get enough contrast. The beam voltage and current were deliberately adjusted at 15 kV and 50 pA, respectively, to strike a subtle balance between achieving enough resolution and avoiding beam damage.

[0138] SEM images of substrates collected after the tests (FIG. 12) showed a much higher nanofluid adsorption on calcite due to stronger electrostatic attractive forces as compared to hydrogen bonding in the case of quartz. SEM-EDX analysis (Table 4) of adsorbed particles on calcite revealed the presence of carbon and calcium (mainly from calcite) as well as oxygen. The absence of nitrogen suggests that the adsorbed particles are QDs and not amphiphilic quantum dots, in agreement with our wettability measurements. On the quartz substrate, the EDX analysis showed the presence of carbon, oxygen, and silicon due to the adsorbed particles and the silica backbone. The amount of nitrogen was negligible, indicating that most of the particles adsorbed are QDs.

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 SEM-EDX of adsorbed nanoparticles on quartz and calcite substrates Atoms (%) Element Quartz Calcite Carbon 58.51 49.19 Oxygen 31.91 1.61 Nitrogen 0.04 0.00 Silicon 9.54 0.86 Calcium 0.00 15.51

[0139] Macroscale Core Flooding

[0140] Core flooding experiments were conducted on Berea sandstone and Edwards limestone to test the efficiency of the selected nanofluid. Cylindrical cores of 1.5″ in diameter and 6″ in length were drilled and cut from parent blocks. The cores were thoroughly washed with DI water and dried for 48 hours at 110° C. before usage. The petrophysical properties of the cores are listed in Table 5. The micro-CT images, mineralogy, and composition of the Berea and Edwards outcrops can be found elsewhere..sup.38 A schematic of the experimental setup is provided in FIG. 13. The cores were saturated with Gibbs crude oil and dynamically aged for 4 weeks to alter the wettability of the rocks to oil-wet conditions. The aqueous phase (brine/nanofluid) was injected at 0.6 cm.sup.3/min into the aged core, maintaining the flow rate in the capillary-dominated flow regime. The recovered effluent was heated to 55° C. to separate the oil and water phases.

TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Petrophysical properties of Edwards limestone and Berea sandstone cores Edwards Berea Brine Nanofluid Brine Nanofluid Property flooding flooding flooding flooding Length (inch) 5.98 6.48 5.97 5.94 Diameter (inch) 1.49 1.50 1.49 1.48 Porosity (%) 22.4 24.2 20.1 19.7 Average Permeability (mD) 18.6 18.1 172.3 168.4

[0141] The data in FIG. 14A indicates that 0.1 wt % concentration of QD:EQD=1:1 mixture in brine increased oil recovery to about 56 vol %, compared to 35.7 vol % with base brine. The nanofluid recorded a much lower pressure drop (ΔP) compared to brine alone due to its ability to lower the IFT and contact angle, and thus the local capillary pressure needed to invade the pores, as seen in FIG. 14C. In the case of Edwards carbonate, the nanofluid showed a slow and steady recovery before stabilizing at six pore volumes. This trend was due to the large adsorption of QDs on the carbonate surface (FIG. 12B), resulting in pore plugging and a large ΔP across the core. The pressure spikes in FIG. 14D indicates that this blockage redirected the nanofluid into a new uninvaded path, leading to a drop in ΔP. The combined effect of IFT reduction, wettability alteration, and pore plugging increased oil recovery by about 9.6 vol % as compared to base brine (FIG. 14B). Thus, the application of such nanofluids is more suitable in silicate-rich oil reservoirs or aquifers where rock retention is minimum.

EXAMPLE 2—PORE-SCALE DISPLACEMENT MECHANISM OF AQUEOUS NANOFLUIDS USING X-RAY MICRO-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

[0142] Micro-CT Core Flooding

[0143] Microscale core flooding experiments using X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) technique integrated with a miniature core flooding system. This method sheds light on the pore-scale displacement physics inside the porous medium. The experimental setup of the system is shown in FIG. 15, and the experimental procedure is shown in FIG. 16. Dual cylinder Quizix pumps were used to inject fluids (Milne Point oil, brine, aqueous nanofluid) and to apply a net confining pressure (200 psi) and a back pressure (300 psi). A heterogeneous Arkose aquifer core sample (5 mm in diameter and 4.6 cm in length) from the Fountain formation was used in this experiment. The dry rock sample was scanned to obtain the rock properties and grain map of the rock. The rock was divided into its constituent minerals (quartz, carbonate, and feldspar) based on the intensities of minerals from the dry scan. The rock sample was then vacuum saturated with brine, and subsequent primary drainage was performed with Milne Point crude oil to establish initial water saturation (Swi). The core was then dynamically aged for four weeks at 60° C. Base brine (1 M NaCl) flooding was conducted as a reference recovery process. Since the brine could not alter the wettability, the initial saturation conditions were re-established to make sure that the starting conditions remained the same. Thereafter, the core was flooded with the nanofluid (QD:EQD=1:1 in 1 M NaCl). The core was scanned using the micro-CT scanner (Versa-XRM50) at different stages (1 PV, 3 PV, 8 PV, and 20 PV) during each of the flooding steps (brine and nanofluid). Saturation profiles and in-situ contact angles were analyzed from the scanned images by Avizo 9.4 software. More details on the rock and fluid samples and the experimental procedures can be found elsewhere..sup.39,40,41

[0144] The results from micro-CT flooding show that the nanofluid can increase the oil recovery by 14% as compared to base brine. FIG. 17 illustrates the water saturation profiles along the core at different flooding stages. It is clear that the water saturation after nanofluid flooding is significantly higher than that after base brine flooding, thereby revealing the high efficiency of the nanofluid. FIG. 18 shows the measured contact angles on different minerals (quartz, carbonate, and feldspar) before and after water flooding. The brine showed no effect on wettability alteration while the contact angle noticeably changed towards water-wet conditions on all minerals at each stage of nanofluid injection, as shown in FIG. 19.

[0145] Displacement Mechanism

[0146] The mechanisms behind the increase in oil recovery due to the QD-based nanofluid are wettability alteration and IFT reduction. The nanoparticles (QD and EQD) may prefer to migrate to the 3-phase region between oil, rock, and water at the initial stages of the experiment as compared to the oil-water interface. This phenomenon led to faster wettability alteration during the initial stages, as seen in Table 6. Afterward, the nanoparticles migrated to the oil-water interface affecting the IFT. This preferential behavior of the nanoparticles slows down the recovery at the initial stages of nanofluid injection. The rate of oil recovery is increased when the nanofluid migrates to the 2-phase region between oil and water.

TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Reduction in average contact angle (in degrees) per PV of nanofluid injection at different flooding stages. Quartz Carbonate Feldspar 1PV to 3PV 18.68 27.53 12.92 3PV to 8PV 1.83 1.50 2.09 8PV to 20PV 3.50 1.32 2.64

EXAMPLE 3—INTERFACIAL ACTIVITY OF THE AQUEOUS NANOFLUID AT THE FOAM LAMELLA

[0147] The interfacial activity of the QDs was tested with foaming surfactants such as cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaine and cocoamidopropyl betaine. Here, we report the results with a synthetic amphoteric surfactant from Stepan, Amphosol CS-50 (ACS). A schematic for the interaction between the nanoparticles and surfactant is shown in FIG. 20. At the methane-water interface, the surfactant molecules assemble themselves with the hydrophobic end in the gas phase and the hydrophilic end in the aqueous phase. When the QDs in the aqueous phase arrange themselves at the lamella, they act as a barrier between the two gas bubbles. In addition, the negatively charged head of the surfactants on adjacent bubbles are electrostatically repelled by the negative charge of the QD, thus preventing the bubbles from coalescing.

[0148] The surfactant Amphosol CS-50 was procured from Stepan Company. The brine used was 200,000 ppm, and the oil used was Bakken oil. The gas used was industrial-grade methane from Airgas. The performance of the QD to improve foam strength and stability was tested using methane as gas phase and at high temperature (115° C.) and high pressure (3500 psi) conditions. The foam was generated using water-wet and oil-wet sand packs. The sand used was a mixture of 89% 40/70-mesh and 11% 20/40-mesh. During the tests, the sand pack (40 inches) was filled with sand to a permeability of about 63 Darcy. For water-wet conditions, the sand pack was vacuumed overnight and completely saturated with 200,000 ppm brine. For the oil-wet tests, the sand was aged in Bakken oil for 5 weeks at 115° C. The sand pack was filled with the oil-wet sand and vacuumed for one hour. Methane was then injected into the sand pack to push out the air. It was then vacuumed overnight. The sand pack was saturated with oil at 500 psi. A higher pressure was used to ensure the complete dissolution of any entrapped methane. The oil was then displaced with brine until no more oil came out to establish initial oil saturation. Initial oil saturation of about 10% was established in the sand-packs prior to foam generation. The pressure drop across the sand pack was measured to estimate the apparent viscosity of the foam. Once the pressure stabilized (steady-state), the foam was directed to a pressure cell maintained at 115° C. and 3500 psi to measure the half-life of the foam. Half-lives and apparent viscosity of the formulation were used to determine the efficiency of the foam.

[0149] The half-life represents the stability of the foam, and the apparent viscosity is a measure of the strength of the foam in porous media. The foam formed by pure surfactant can collapse quickly, leading to a low half-life. In a water-wet system, the addition of the QD to the surfactant could increase the half-lives of the foam as compared to the pure surfactant, as seen in FIG. 21A. The addition of GQD to surfactant helps to create a layer of QD at the lamella, thus preventing the adjacent gas bubbles from coalescing. However, the apparent viscosity of the surfactant foam was higher than the formulation (FIG. 21B). In other embodiments, the apparent viscosity of the surfactant foam may be matched to the QD formulation via the addition of more QD. When the surfactant concentration was increased from 1000 ppm, the half-life initially increased up to 4000 ppm and then decreased, as shown in FIG. 22A. The apparent viscosity, on the other hand, does not appear to follow any particular trend (FIG. 22B). In addition, the ratio of gas to the aqueous phase (the gas fraction) also affected the quality of the foam. As the gas fraction was increased from 60%, the foam half and apparent viscosities also increased up to 90% gas quality (FIG. 23). At 95% gas fraction, the foam formed was unstable with rapid foam production and collapse cycles. This leads to poor quality foam. When the flow rate of fluid injection was varied, the foam half-life increased up to 5 cc/min and then plateaued (FIG. 24A), whereas the apparent viscosities decreased with increasing flow rates (FIG. 24B). The presence of oil in the porous media can adversely affect the foam quality and foam stability. To assess the impact of oil on the foam, the foam half-life and foam apparent viscosities were measured in oil-wet systems. In the case of oil-wet conditions, the addition of QD to the surfactant increased the half-life at least more than 3 times (FIG. 25A). In particular, 500 ppm QD increased the half-life by more than 7 times than that of the surfactant itself. This shows that the ability of the QD to stabilize foam bubbles and prevent them from coalescing is more pronounced in oil-wet conditions. Also, the 500 ppm QD was able to exceed the apparent viscosity of the base surfactant (FIG. 25B). When the surfactant concentration was varied, concentrations below 3000 ppm did not generate any foam. The half-life of the foam was highest for 5000 ppm surfactant concentration, and it dropped at higher concentrations (FIG. 26A). On the other hand, the apparent viscosities were almost constant for concentrations from 3000-5000 ppm at a value of about 62 cP and then dropped with an increase in concentration (FIG. 26B). When the gas fraction was increased from 70% to 95%, the half-life of the foam decreased linearly (FIG. 27A). This is due to the fact that at higher gas fractions, the foam consists of lower active material in the aqueous solution. On the contrary, the increase in gas fraction generated stronger foam leading to higher apparent foam viscosities (FIG. 27B).

[0150] FIGS. 28A-B show the TEM micrographs for the emulsions formed by the surfactant and surfactant-nanofluid formulation with oil. The emulsions formed by the surfactant itself are oval-shaped (FIG. 28A). In the case of the formulation, the emulsions are spherical, with the nanofluid forming a ring around the edges of the emulsion (FIG. 28B). The existence of the nanofluid ring at the interface verifies their high interfacial activity at the oil/water interface. In addition, the absence of nanofluid in the center of the oil droplet and the presence of nanofluid all over the water phase are also strong evidence of the fact that the nanofluid comprises hydrophilic nanoparticles with high interfacial activity. FIG. 29 shows the size distribution of the emulsions formed using both the surfactant and the formulation. Thus, the addition of nanofluid decreased the oil droplet size in the emulsion, thereby increasing the emulsion stability.

[0151] The TEM micrographs of the surfactant micelles under different conditions are presented in FIG. 30, and the size distribution of these micelles are shown in FIG. 31. Two types of micelle structures are recognized: the spherical type and the peapod-like shape. The spherical type of micelle structures was found in the pure surfactant solution and the surfactant with QD dispersion, while the peapod-like structures were found in surfactant with QD, surfactant with oil, and surfactant with oil and QD. For the spherical structures, the addition of QD reduced their average size from 83 nm to 58 nm. For the peapod-like type of structures, the largest micelles size was found in QD with oil emulsion, followed by surfactant and oil with QD, and surfactant with oil. The micelle size decrease after adding nanofluid might be caused by the hydrophilic nature and the negative surface charge of nanofluid. The decrease of peapod-shaped micelle size after adding oil might be due to the transport of surfactant molecules to the oil/water interface, which decreased the amount of surfactant molecules in the water phase for possible micelle assembling.

[0152] While the examples above employed AMPHOSOL CS-50 as the surfactant, it will be appreciated that the quantum dot nanoparticles of the present invention could be added to any gas foaming surfactant in brine in order to stabilize the resulting foam.

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STATEMENTS REGARDING INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE AND VARIATIONS

[0197] All references throughout this application, for example patent documents including issued or granted patents or equivalents; patent application publications; and non-patent literature documents or other source material; are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties, as though individually incorporated by reference, to the extent each reference is at least partially not inconsistent with the disclosure in this application (for example, a reference that is partially inconsistent is incorporated by reference except for the partially inconsistent portion of the reference).

[0198] The terms and expressions which have been employed herein are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments, exemplary embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the appended claims. The specific embodiments provided herein are examples of useful embodiments of the present invention and it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be carried out using a large number of variations of the devices, device components, methods steps set forth in the present description. As will be obvious to one of skill in the art, methods and devices useful for the present methods can include a large number of optional composition and processing elements and steps.

[0199] As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a cell” includes a plurality of such cells and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art. As well, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be used interchangeably herein. It is also to be noted that the terms “comprising”, “including”, and “having” can be used interchangeably. The expression “of any of claims XX-YY” (wherein XX and YY refer to claim numbers) is intended to provide a multiple dependent claim in the alternative form, and in some embodiments is interchangeable with the expression “as in any one of claims XX-YY.”

[0200] When a group of substituents is disclosed herein, it is understood that all individual members of that group and all subgroups, including any isomers, enantiomers, and diastereomers of the group members, are disclosed separately. When a Markush group or other grouping is used herein, all individual members of the group and all combinations and subcombinations possible of the group are intended to be individually included in the disclosure. When a compound is described herein such that a particular isomer, enantiomer or diastereomer of the compound is not specified, for example, in a formula or in a chemical name, that description is intended to include each isomers and enantiomer of the compound described individual or in any combination. Additionally, unless otherwise specified, all isotopic variants of compounds disclosed herein are intended to be encompassed by the disclosure. For example, it will be understood that any one or more hydrogens in a molecule disclosed can be replaced with deuterium or tritium. Isotopic variants of a molecule are generally useful as standards in assays for the molecule and in chemical and biological research related to the molecule or its use. Methods for making such isotopic variants are known in the art. Specific names of compounds are intended to be exemplary, as it is known that one of ordinary skill in the art can name the same compounds differently.

[0201] Certain molecules disclosed herein may contain one or more ionizable groups [groups from which a proton can be removed (e.g., —COOH) or added (e.g., amines) or which can be quaternized (e.g., amines)]. All possible ionic forms of such molecules and salts thereof are intended to be included individually in the disclosure herein. With regard to salts of the compounds herein, one of ordinary skill in the art can select from among a wide variety of available counterions those that are appropriate for preparation of salts of this invention for a given application. In specific applications, the selection of a given anion or cation for preparation of a salt may result in increased or decreased solubility of that salt.

[0202] Every device, system, formulation, combination of components, or method described or exemplified herein can be used to practice the invention, unless otherwise stated.

[0203] Whenever a range is given in the specification, for example, a temperature range, a time range, or a composition or concentration range, all intermediate ranges and subranges, as well as all individual values included in the ranges given are intended to be included in the disclosure. It will be understood that any subranges or individual values in a range or subrange that are included in the description herein can be excluded from the claims herein.

[0204] All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. References cited herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety to indicate the state of the art as of their publication or filing date and it is intended that this information can be employed herein, if needed, to exclude specific embodiments that are in the prior art. For example, when composition of matter are claimed, it should be understood that compounds known and available in the art prior to Applicant's invention, including compounds for which an enabling disclosure is provided in the references cited herein, are not intended to be included in the composition of matter claims herein.

[0205] As used herein, “comprising” is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. As used herein, “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim element. As used herein, “consisting essentially of” does not exclude materials or steps that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the claim. In each instance herein any of the terms “comprising”, “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of” may be replaced with either of the other two terms. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein.

[0206] One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that starting materials, biological materials, reagents, synthetic methods, purification methods, analytical methods, assay methods, and biological methods other than those specifically exemplified can be employed in the practice of the invention without resort to undue experimentation. All art-known functional equivalents, of any such materials and methods are intended to be included in this invention. The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention that in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the appended claims.