Electrode materials and processes for their preparation

Abstract

This application describes an electrode material comprising particles of an electrochemically active material dispersed in a polymer binder, where the polymer binder is an acidic polymer or a mixture comprising a binder soluble in an aqueous solvent or a non-aqueous solvent (e.g. NMP) and an acidic polymer. The application also further relates to processes for the preparation of the electrode material and electrodes containing the material, as well as to the electrochemical cells and their use.

Claims

1. An electrode material comprising particles of an electrochemically active material dispersed in a polymer binder, wherein the polymer binder consists of: i. a mixture consisting of an aqueous binder and an acidic polymer; ii. an acidic polymer; or iii. a mixture consisting of a non-aqueous binder and an acidic polymer; wherein the acidic polymer is selected from poly(acrylic acid), poly(methacrylic acid) and combinations thereof and has an average molecular weight within the range of from about 200 000 g/mol to about 600 000 g/mol.

2. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the acidic polymer is poly(methacrylic acid).

3. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the acidic polymer is poly(acrylic acid).

4. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the polymer binder is (i) a mixture consisting of an aqueous binder and an acidic polymer, and the aqueous binder is selected from SBR (styrene butadiene rubber), NBR (butadiene acrylonitrile rubber), HNBR (hydrogenated NBR), CHR (epichlorohydrin rubber), ACM (acrylate rubber), and combinations thereof.

5. The electrode material of claim 4, wherein the aqueous binder comprises SBR (styrene butadiene rubber) or the aqueous binder is SBR (styrene butadiene rubber).

6. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the polymer binder is (i) or (iii) and the ratio (aqueous binder):(acidic polymer) or (non-aqueous binder):(acidic polymer) is within the range of from about 1:8 to about 8:1, or from about 1:5 to about 5:1, or from about 1:3 to about 3:1.

7. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the acidic polymer further comprises lithium ions.

8. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the electrochemically active material comprises a material selected from the group consisting of titanates, lithium titanates, lithium metal phosphates, vanadium oxides, lithium metal oxides, and combinations thereof.

9. The electrode material of claim 8, wherein the electrochemically active material is selected from TiO.sub.2, Li.sub.2TiO.sub.3, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, H.sub.2Ti.sub.5O.sub.11 and H.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9, or a combination thereof, LiM′PO.sub.4 wherein M′ is Fe, Ni, Mn, Co, or a combination thereof, LiV.sub.3O.sub.8, V.sub.2O.sub.5, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiM″O.sub.2, wherein M″ is Mn, Co, Ni, or a combination thereof, Li(NiM″)O.sub.2, wherein M′″ is Mn, Co, Al, Fe, Cr, Ti, or Zr, and combinations thereof.

10. The electrode material of claim 8, wherein the electrochemically active material is selected from lithium titanates and lithium metal phosphates.

11. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein said particles further comprise a carbon coating.

12. A process for producing an electrode comprising an electrode material as defined in claim 1, comprising the steps of: a) mixing, in any order: i. particles of electrochemically active material, the mixture consisting of the aqueous binder and the acidic polymer in an aqueous solvent to obtain a slurry; ii. particles of electrochemically active material and the binder consisting of the acidic polymer in a solvent to obtain a slurry; or iii. particles of electrochemically active material, the mixture consisting of the non-aqueous binder and the acidic polymer in an unreactive organic solvent to obtain a slurry; b) casting the slurry of step (a) on a current collector; and c) drying the casted slurry to obtain an electrode.

13. The process of claim 12, further comprising a step of neutralizing the acidic polymer prior to step (a) with a lithium-containing base such as lithium hydroxide.

14. The process of claim 12, wherein the current collector is aluminum or an alloy having aluminum as the main component.

15. The process of claim 12, wherein the solvent in step (a)(ii) is an aqueous solvent.

16. The process of claim 12, wherein the solvent in step (a)(ii) or (a)(iii) is an unreactive organic solvent.

17. The electrode material of claim 1, wherein the polymer binder is (iii) a mixture consisting of a non-aqueous binder and an acidic polymer, and the non-aqueous binder is selected from fluorinated binders.

18. The electrode material of claim 17, wherein the fluorinated binder comprises PVDF or the fluorinated binder is PVDF.

19. An electrode comprising the electrode material as defined in claim 1, on a current collector, preferably the current collector is aluminum or an alloy having aluminum as the main component.

20. An electrochemical cell comprising an electrode as defined in claim 19, an electrolyte and a counter-electrode.

21. The electrode material of claim 11, wherein the carbon coating is a nano-layer of carbon comprising fibers on the surface of the particles and/or the carbon coating comprises a polyaromatic structure of graphene comprising heteroatoms selected from oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and combinations thereof.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of an embodiment of the present application using an SBR/PAA binder (bottom), compared to the use of an SBR/CMC binder (top).

(2) FIG. 2 displays Nyquist plots of LFP electrodes comprising SBR/PAA or SBR/PAA-Li binders according to embodiments of the present application, compared to reference electrodes as detailed in Example 2.

(3) FIG. 3 displays a graph of the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of the LFP electrodes. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). The results are presented for LFP-SBR/PAA, LFP-SBR/PAA-Li and LFP-PAA/NMP.

(4) FIG. 4 displays a graph of the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of the LTO electrodes. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). The results are presented for LTO-PVDF, LTO-PAA/NMP and LTO-SBR/CMC.

(5) FIG. 5 displays a graph of the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of LFP-LTO cells. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). The results are presented for the reference LFP-PVDF-LTO and the LFP-PAA-NMP-LTO cells.

(6) FIG. 6 displays a graph of the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of LFP-LTO cells. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C and 4 C). The results are presented for the reference LFP(PVDF)-LTO(PVDF) and the LFP(PAA-NMP)-LTO(PVDF) cells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(7) This application relates to a process for the preparation of electrode materials, more specifically, comprising particles of an electrochemically active material dispersed in a binder comprising an acidic polymer binder. This application also relates to a process for the preparation of electrode material comprising particles of an electrochemically active material dispersed in a binder mixture comprising a binder soluble in an aqueous solvent and an acidic polymer binder, or a binder mixture comprising a binder soluble in a non-aqueous solvent and an acidic polymer binder.

(8) Examples of acidic polymer binders include poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) or combinations thereof. The slurry to be coated optionally includes additional components such as inorganic particles, ceramics, salts (e.g. lithium salts), conductive materials, and the like. In one embodiment, no additional carbon source is added to the slurry before its coating on the current collector. Examples of binders soluble in aqueous solvents include SBR (Styrene Butadiene Rubber), NBR (butadiene acrylonitrile rubber), HNBR (hydrogenated NBR), CHR (epichlorohydrin rubber), ACM (acrylate rubber), and the like, or any combination of two or more of these. Examples of binders soluble in non-aqueous (unreactive organic) solvents include ethers, esters, carbonate esters, nitriles, amides, alcohols, nitromethane, 3-methyl-2-oxazolidinone, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) or a mixture thereof, e.g. NMP.

(9) The particles include inorganic particles of electrochemically active materials, such as metal oxides and complex oxides and other known active materials. Examples of electrochemically active materials include, without limitation, titanates and lithium titanates (e.g. TiO.sub.2, Li.sub.2TiO.sub.3, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, H.sub.2Ti.sub.5O.sub.11, H.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9, and the like, or a combination thereof), lithium metal phosphates (e.g. LiM′PO.sub.4 where M′ is Fe, Ni, Mn, Co, or a combination thereof), vanadium oxides (e.g. LiV.sub.3O.sub.8, V.sub.2O.sub.5, and the like), and other lithium and metal oxides such as LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiM″O.sub.2 (M″ being Mn, Co, Ni, or a combination thereof), Li(NiM′″)O.sub.2 (M′″ being Mn, Co, Al, Fe, Cr, Ti, Zr, and the like, or a combination thereof), or a combination thereof. The particles are freshly formed or are obtained from a commercial source and may be microparticles or nanoparticles.

(10) For example, the particles further include a carbon coating, such as a nano-layer of activated carbon. For instance, the average thickness of an amorphous carbon layer may be below 20 nm, or below 10 nm, e.g. around 1.0-1.5 nm. The activated carbon layer may comprise fibers and/or fused aromatic rings comprising carbon atoms and heteroatoms. For instance, the activated carbon layer comprises graphene oxide or a nitrogen-containing graphene-like structure. For instance, the coating may comprise about 4 wt. % to about 15 wt. %, or about 6 wt. % to about 11 wt. %, of nitrogen, the rest being carbon.

(11) Also, the surface area of the coated particles may be between about 2 m.sup.2/g and about 20 m.sup.2/g, or between about 4 m.sup.2/g and about 15 m.sup.2/g, or between about 6 m.sup.2/g and about 10 m.sup.2/g, as determined by BET surface area analysis.

(12) The present application also relates to the preparation of an electrode comprising the electrode material as defined herein. In one example, the electrochemically active particles are mixed with the binder and casted on a current collector, for instance, as a slurry in a solvent, which is dried after casting. When the binder is a mixture comprising a water-soluble binder and an acidic polymer binder, then the solvent is an aqueous solvent. On the other hand, when the binder is an acidic polymer binder, then the solvent may be an aqueous or unreactive organic solvent such as NMP. Where the binder is a mixture of a non-aqueous binder and an acidic polymer binder, the solvent may be an unreactive organic non-aqueous solvent, e.g. NMP. The binder is selected considering the compatibility with the electrochemically active material, the current collector, the electrolyte, and other parts of the electrochemical cell which could be in contact with the binder.

(13) The electrode produced by the present process is for use in the assembly of an electrochemical cell further comprising an electrolyte and a counter-electrode. The material composing the counter-electrode is selected as a function of the material used in the electrode. The electrolyte may be a liquid, gel or solid polymer electrolyte and comprises a lithium salt and/or is conductive to lithium ions.

(14) One example of the present application contemplates the use of PAA (200 000-500 000 g/mol) in NMP or as a mixture with another binder as defined above, such as SBR or PVDF, in adjusted proportions for enhancing the dispersion of active materials in water to further increase the electrochemical performance of the electrode. It was shown that the addition of SBR or PVDF (or a related binder) or the use of PAA in NMP reduce the glass transition effect and brittleness of previously reported PAA containing electrodes. As PAA is an acidic polymer, the acid groups may also be neutralized with a lithium base (e.g. 50 mol %) to further reduce the binder's resistance to lithium ion diffusion in the electrode, for instance, when the material is prepared in an aqueous solvent.

(15) For instance, a mixture of PAA and SBR or PVDF as binder improves the performance of LFP, LTO, LTO-activated carbon coating and activated carbon sources (graphene oxide, carbon doped, etc.). Furthermore, it was also demonstrated that a mixture of PAA in NMP as binder also improves the performance of LFP and LTO.

(16) Another example of the present application contemplates the use an acidic polymer as sole binder, for instance PAA (200 000-500 000 g/mol), in a concentration adjusted for enhancing the dispersion of active materials and/or further increase the electrochemical performance of the electrode. As PAA is an acidic polymer, the acid groups may also be neutralized with a lithium base (e.g. 50 mol %) to further reduce the binder's resistance to lithium ion diffusion in the electrode. For instance, the concentration in acidic polymer binder like PAA in the electrode material may be between about 1 and 8%, for instance, between about 3 and 6%, or between about 4 and 5%.

(17) The carbon coating materials produced using activated carbon (e.g. nitrogen-containing graphene-type carbon) enhance the performances of LTO anodes. Also, the use of graphene oxide could increase the electronic conductivity of the electrode when compared to carbon powder. However, activated carbon and graphene oxide react with aluminum current collectors to release hydrogen in the presence of water based binders such as a mixture of SBR and CMC (see Wan D. et al., Supra). The use of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) instead of CMC prevents this contact.

(18) It is believed that PAA (or another acidic polymer such as PMAA) acts as a surfactant since its backbone is hydrophobic and its acid groups are hydrophilic. The polymer auto-assembles in the presence of particles coated with nitrogen-containing activated carbon or graphene oxide. This finding was further supported by the use of PAA as a polymeric surfactant for the dispersion of various inorganic particles such as Al.sub.2O.sub.3, TiO.sub.2, carbon nanotubes, molybdenum, etc. (see Loiseau, J. et al., Macromolecules, 2003, 36(9), 3066-3077; Daigle, J. -C. et al., Journal of Nanomaterials, 2008, 8, and Zhong, W. et al., Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, 2012, 50(21), 4403-4407, each incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes). PAA acts as a surfactant on the surface and the acid groups from the polymer stabilize the dispersion of particles in water. Samsung has also used low molecular weight PAA for dispersing Si and Sn based materials (Lee, S. et al., US Patent Application Publication No 2016/0141624, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes).

(19) As such, PAA's backbone would be located near the current collector while its acidic groups would neutralize the basic groups in carbon sources. As a result, the present material prevented gas generation. FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of the process. In that particular case, no additional carbon was necessary.

EXAMPLES

(20) The following non-limiting examples are illustrative embodiments and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the present application. These examples will be better understood with reference to the accompanying figures.

Example 1

Preparation of C-LTO

(21) LTO (20 g) was introduced in a 250 mL round bottom flask and stirred by magnetic agitation. Then 100 mL of nanopure water were added to the active material in the flask. The slurry obtained was sonicated at a power of 70% for 6 min. After sonication, the slurry was cooled in an ice bath. A solution of 3 g of acrylonitrile and 25 mg of AIBN was added to the flask. The resulting slurry (13% wt of monomer) was sonicated for another 6 min at the same power. The slurry was then degassed for 30 min using a stream of nitrogen. The slurry was then heated to 70° C. for 12 hours with high stirring under nitrogen.

(22) The slurry obtained in the previous step was heated to 180° C. After heating, the slurry was dried by spray-drying using a pump at 25% and a blower at 95-100%, percentages of the apparatus' full power.

(23) The dried particles were then carbonized under air using a temperature ramp of from 25° C. to 240° C. at a rate of 5° C. min.sup.−1, and further kept at 240° C. for 1 hour. Then the temperature was raised to 700° C. with a rate of 5° C. min.sup.−1 under an atmosphere of Argon:CO.sub.2 (75:25) or nitrogen.

Example 2

Performance at High Current for C-LTO/SBR/PAA

(24) The C-LTO material prepared by the process of Example 1 was mixed with Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) binder (48% water solution) and CMC (1.5% water solution) or PAA (250 000-500 000 g/mol) to form a slurry. The solid ratio of C-LTO/SBR/(CMC or PAA) was 96.0/2.5/1.5 (for a 1.0 wt % dry content in carbon from the coating). The resulting slurry was coated on an aluminum foil with a thickness of 15 microns.

(25) LFP-LTO coin cells were then assembled with the following configurations:

(26) Cell type: 2032 size coin cell

(27) Cathode: LiFePO.sub.4 (LFP):Carbon Black:PVdF=90:5:5

(28) Anodes: “Reference”: Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12 (LTO):Carbon Black:SBR:CMC=91:5:2.5:1.5 “C-LTO 1% CMC”: 1 wt. % C—Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12 (LTO):SBR:CMC=96:2.5:1.5 “C-LTO 1% PAA”: 1 wt. % C—Li.sub.4Ti.sub.6O.sub.12 (LTO):SBR:PAA=96:2.5:1.5

(29) Separator: Polyetylene based, 16 μm

(30) Electrolyte: 1 mol/kg LiPF.sub.6 PC/DMC/EMC (4/3/3)

(31) Cell performances for the three cells obtained were tested and compared. Prior to the cycling test, the batteries were charged and discharged twice at 0.2 C at a temperature of 25° C. (“xC” being defined as the current that can charge/discharge the full cell capacity in 1/x hour). Conditions used:

(32) Charge: CC-CV (constant current constant voltage) mode Voltage: 2.4 V, Current: 0.2 C, Cut off current: 0.03 mA

(33) Discharge: CC (constant current) mode Cut off voltage: 0.5 V, Current: 0.2 C

(34) The effect of PAA on the power performance was evaluated by load tests. LFP-LTO coin cells were assembled and cycled (charged and discharged) at 0.2 C, 1 C, 4 C, 10 C. After cycling at xC (x=0.2, 1.0, 4.0, 10.0), the battery was cycled at 0.2 C for a full charge and discharge. For instance, 1 C is the current that can charge or discharge the full capacity of the cell in 1 hour. 2 C is for 30 minutes, 4 C is for 15 minutes, and 10 C is for 6 minutes.

(35) For the charge load test, after a full discharge at 0.2 C, the LFP-LTO cells were charged at 1 C and then charged again at 0.2 C. Then the cells were discharged at 0.2 C and charged at 2 C.

(36) For the discharge load test, after full charge at 0.2 C, the LFP-LTO cells were discharged at 1 C and then discharged again at 0.2 C. The cells were then charged at 0.2 C and discharged at 2 C.

(37) Capacity retentions were calculated using Equation 1:
Capacity retention=(Capacity at x C)/(Capacity at 0.2 C)×100 Equation 1

(38) The capacity in the CC region was used for calculations of charge load characteristics. The results of the load tests are shown in Table 1. Conditions used:

(39) Charge: CC-CV (constant current constant voltage) mode Voltage: 2.4 V, Current: xC, Cut off current: 0.03 mA

(40) Discharge: CC (constant current) mode Cut off voltage: 0.5 V, Current: xC

(41) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Charge and Discharge capacities 0.2 C 1 C 2 C 4 C 10 C Reference (SBR/CMC) Charge 100 91.9 86.9 78.9 27.4 Discharge 100 94.1 90.3 84.6 71.7 C-LTO 1.0 wt. % Charge 100 97.0 91.7 84.8 48.4 (SBR/CMC) Discharge 100 91.3 86.2 76.4 63.2 C-LTO 1.0 wt. % Charge 100 96.3 91.4 85.0 63.5 (SBR/PAA) Discharge 100 95.5 93.4 81.2 80.0

(42) Even though no additional conductive agent (e.g. carbon black) was included in the C-LTO 1% CMC electrode, it showed compatible performance at high current such as 4 C or 10 C. However, the C-LTO 1% PAA electrode showed better capacity retention compared to the reference at 4 C and 10 C, for both the charge and the discharge. The presence of PAA in the binder would thus play a significant role in enhancing transportation of lithium through a better coordination.

Example 3

Resistance Properties for LFP/SBR/PAA

(43) LFP-Li coin cells were then assembled with the following configurations:

(44) Cell type: 2032 size coin cell

(45) Cathode: “Reference”: LiFePO.sub.4 (LFP):Carbon Black:PVdF=90:5:5 “LFP CMC”: LFP:Carbon Black:SBR:CMC=91.0:5.0:2.5:1.5 “LFP PAA”: LFP:Carbon Black:SBR:PAA=91.0:5.0:1.0:3.0 “LFP PAA-Li”: LFP:Carbon Black:SBR:PAA-Li=91.0:5.0:1.0:3.0

(46) Anode: Li metal

(47) Electrolyte: 1 mol/kg LiPF.sub.6 PC/DMC/EMC (4/3/3)

(48) The three first cathodes were prepared as in Example 2, replacing LTO by LFP. LFP PAA-Li was prepared by the following steps:

(49) PAA (450 000 g/mol) was dissolved in water at a concentration of 14.7 wt %. About 50 mol % of the polymer's acid groups were neutralized by LiOH.H.sub.2O. The solution was stirred for 4 hours at 80° C. and then for 12 hours at room temperature to ensure the complete dissolution and neutralization of the polymer. The LFP-PAA-Li electrode was prepared in the same way then the LFP-PAA electrode using PAA-Li in replacement of PAA.

(50) Prior to the cycling test, batteries were charged and discharged twice at 0.2 C at a temperature of 25° C.:

(51) Charge: CC-CV (constant current constant voltage) mode Voltage: 3.8 V, Current: 0.2 C, Cut off current: 0.03 mA

(52) Discharge: CC (constant current) mode Cut off voltage: 2.0 V, Current: 0.2 C

(53) Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was performed using the LFP-Li coin cell mentioned above at a state of charge (SOC)=50% and compared with the other cells (Frequency: 1 MHz-10 mHz, AC amplitude: 10 mV).

(54) FIG. 2 shows the Nyquist plot of the various cells. When using CMC, the resistance is decreased as compared to the reference cell. On the other hand, the replacement of CMC with PAA showed a reduced reaction resistance compared to CMC. The use of PAA-Li showed further improved results, where reaction resistance was less than half of the resistance obtained with the reference. The addition of lithium ions in the binder would further improves the transport of lithium through the creation of lithium channels within the PAA matrix.

Example 4

Influence of PAA on the Capacity, Efficiency and Capacity Retention for LFP and LTO Cells

(55) The electrodes were prepared as in Example 2 and 3, replacing water with NMP when PVDF was used. When the composition of the electrodes is not presented in Example 2 or 3 the compositions are as follow:

(56) Cathode: “LFP PAA-NMP” (FIG. 3): LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=91.0:5.0:4.0 (prepared in NMP) “LFP PAA-NMP” (FIG. 6): LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=90.0:5.0:5.0 (prepared in NMP)

(57) Anodes: “LTO PVDF”: LTO:Carbon Black:PVDF=90:5:5 “LTO PAA-NMP” (FIG. 4): LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=91.0:5.0:4.0 (prepared in NMP) “LTO PAA-NMP” (FIG. 6): LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=90.0:5.0:5.0 (prepared in NMP)

(58) FIG. 3 showcase the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of the LFP electrodes. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). The graph compares the capacity retention (%) for LFP-SBR/PAA, LFP-SBR/PAA-Li and LFP-PAA-NMP. The solid ratio used in FIG. 3 was “LFP PAA-NMP”: LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=91.0:5.0:4.0.

(59) Table 2 displays the charge and discharge efficiency % for the formation at 0.3 mA and the nominal charge/discharge efficiency % at 0.6 mA for the mixture of for LFP-SBR/PAA, LFP-SBR/PAA-Li and LFP-PAA-NMP.

(60) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Charge and discharge capacity and efficiency Nominal charge & Formation at 0.3 mA discharge at 0.6 mA Charge Discharge Charge Charge Discharge Charge capacity/ capacity/ discharge capacity/ capacity/ Discharge mAhg.sup.−1 mAhg.sup.−1 Efficiency/% mAhg.sup.−1 mAhg.sup.−1 Efficiency/% SBR/PAA 2.1 2.0 97.9 2.1 2.0 98.8 SBR/PAA-Li 2.4 2.4 98.1 2.4 2.4 99.0 PAA/NMP 2.5 2.4 97.3 2.4 2.4 98.6

(61) The charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of the LTO electrodes are displayed in FIG. 4. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). The graph compares results for LTO-PVDF or LTO-PAA/NMP and LTO-SBR/CMC. A clear improvement in capacity retention is notable at high rate of charge and discharge (10 C) for the PAA electrode in comparison with LTO-PVDF and LTO-SBR/CMC. The solid ratio used in FIG. 4 was “LTO PAA-NMP”: LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=91.0:5.0:4.0.

(62) Table 3 including the charge/discharge efficiency % for the formation at 0.25 mA and the nominal charge/discharge efficiency % at 0.5 mA for the LTO-PVDF reference, the LTO-PAA/NMP and the LTO-SBR/CMC.

(63) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Charge and discharge capacities Nominal charge & Formation at 0.25 mA discharge at 0.5 mA Charge Discharge Charge Charge Discharge Charge capacity/ capacity/ discharge capacity/ capacity/ Discharge mAhg.sup.−1 mAhg.sup.−1 Efficiency/% mAhg.sup.−1 mAhg.sup.−1 Efficiency/% Reference 2.5 2.4 96.8 2.4 2.4 97.9 PAANMP 2.5 2.4 95.7 2.4 2.4 98.9 SBR/CMC 2.5 2.4 97.0 2.4 2.4 98.7

(64) The charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of LFP-LTO cells are presented in FIG. 5. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C, 4 C and 10 C). FIG. 5 showcase results for the LFP-PVDF-LTO reference in comparison with LFP-PAA/NMP-LTO cell. Again, a significant improvement in capacity retention at high rate of charge and discharge (4 C and 10 C) can be observed for LFP-PAA/NMP-LTO cell in comparison with the reference.

(65) The graph of the charge (a) and discharge (b) load characteristics of LFP-LTO cells is presented in FIG. 6. The capacity retention was evaluated at different charge and discharge rates (1 C, 2 C and 4 C). The results are presented for the LFP(PVDF)-LTO(PVDF) reference and the LFP(PAA-NMP)-LTO(PVDF) cell. Once more, a significant improvement in capacity retention at high rate of charge and discharge (4 C) can be observed for the PAA containing cell in comparison with the PVDF reference. Hence, demonstrating that the presence of PAA in the binder plays a significant role in enhancing transportation of lithium.

(66) LFP-LTO had the following compositions: “LFP PAA-NMP”: LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=90.0:5.0:5.0 “LTO PAA-NMP”: LFP:Carbon Black:PAA=90.0:5.0:5.0

(67) Numerous modifications could be made to any of the embodiments described above without departing from the scope of the present invention. Any references, patents or scientific literature documents referred to in this application are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.