Protein activity modification

Abstract

A method of modifying tissue behavior, comprising: determining a desired modification of tissue behavior for at least one of treatment of a disease, short or long term modification of tissue behavior, assessing tissue state and assessing tissue response to stimulation; selecting an electric field having an expected effect of modifying protein activity of at least one protein as an immediate response of a tissue to the field, said expected effect correlated with said desired modification; and applying said field to said tissue.

Claims

1. A method of treating a cardiac disorder in a heart of a patient, comprising: selecting a patient with a risk of progression of heart failure; assessing a baseline value of one or more anatomical markers; and applying a non-excitatory signal to said heart of said patient during a refractory period of said heart for a duration sufficient to reverse or reduce the progression of one or more anatomical markers; wherein the one or more anatomical markers include one or more of interstitial fibrosis, Volume fraction of replacement fibrosis (VFRF), Volume Fraction of Interstitial Fibrosis (VFIF), cardiomyocyte cross sectional area, capillary density and oxygen diffusion distance.

2. A method according to claim 1, wherein said anatomical markers includes interstitial fibrosis.

3. A method according to claim 2, wherein said applying comprises applying said signal in a manner which inhibits one or more gelatinases.

4. A method according to claim 3, wherein said one or more gelatinases include one or both of the Matrix Metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP9.

5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the anatomical markers include capillary density and oxygen diffusion distance and said applying normalizes one or both of capillary density and oxygen diffusion distance.

6. A method according to claim 1, wherein the anatomical markers include said VFRF and said applying improves said VFRF (Volume fraction of replacement fibrosis) by at least 23%.

7. A method according to claim 1, wherein the anatomical markers include said VFIF and said applying improves said VFIF (Volume Fraction of Interstitial Fibrosis) by at least 16%.

8. A method according to claim 1, wherein said reduces cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area by at least 19%.

9. A method according to claim 1, wherein said applying causes a reduction in myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) by at least 96 micromol/min.

10. A method according to claim 1, wherein said selecting comprises selecting a patient with an aim of increasing LV diastolic compliance.

11. A method according to claim 1, wherein said applying comprises applying said non-excitatory signal with every heart beat.

12. A method according to claim 11, wherein said applying comprises applying said non-excitatory signal about 80 applications per minute.

13. A method according to claim 11, wherein said applying comprises applying said non-excitatory signal between 4 and 6 phases.

14. A method according to claim 11, wherein said applying comprises applying to a right ventricular septum to treat a damaged left ventricle.

15. A method according to claim 14, wherein said applying comprises applying said non-excitatory signal using two electrodes about 1-2 cm apart.

16. A method according to claim 11, wherein said applying comprises applying for about 5 hours a day.

17. A method according to claim 1, wherein said applying of the signal lasts for a duration for at least 3 months.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Non-limiting embodiments of the invention will be described with reference to the following description of exemplary embodiments, in conjunction with the figures. The figures are generally not shown to scale and any sizes are only meant to be exemplary and not necessarily limiting. In the figures, identical structures, elements or parts that appear in more than one figure are preferably labeled with a same or similar number in all the figures in which they appear, in which:

(2) FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a tissue controller utilizing an electrical field to achieve a phosphorylation effect, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(3) FIGS. 2A-2O show the effect of a short term or chronic (multi-month application period) CCM signal on proteins and mRNA in the heart, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(4) FIGS. 3A-3E show the immediate effect of CCM signals on proteins in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the invention;

(5) FIG. 4 is a flowchart of a method of therapy taking phosphorylation into account, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(6) FIGS. 5A-5R are blots showing relative protein levels (in dogs) for control, heart failure and heart failure with chronic CCM application, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(7) FIG. 6 shows mRNA expression levels in a cardiac septum (where signals are applied), in a chronic study, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(8) FIGS. 7A and 7B show a general lack of acute effect of CCM on tissue remote from a CCM delivery site, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(9) FIG. 8 shows levels of phosphorylated phospholamban in dog septum with heart failure with chronic treatment, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(10) FIG. 9A and FIG. 9B show rise times and decay times for treatment using a CCM signal, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(11) FIG. 10 presents western blot data illustrating effect of CCM according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention on protein levels of CSQ, SERCA-2a, PLB and RyR in the LV free wall and inter-ventricular septum;

(12) FIG. 11 presents western blot data illustrating effect of 3 months of CCM according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention on levels of P-PLB at serine-16 and threonine-17 in the LV free wall and inter-ventricular septum relative to sham-operated HF dogs and normal dogs;

(13) FIGS. 12A and 12B present western blot data and bar graphs illustrating effect of CCM according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention on the ratio of P-PLB to total PLB relative to untreated HF dogs in the LV anterior wall at the site of signal delivery (FIG. 12A), and in the LV posterior wall remote from the site of CCM signal delivery (FIG. 12B);

(14) FIGS. 13A and 13B present mRNA (FIG. 13A) and protein blots (FIG. 13B) illustrating expression of Sorcin in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(15) FIGS. 14A, 14B, 14C and 14D present mRNA (FIGS. 14A and 14C) and protein blots (FIGS. 14B and 14D) of the Presenilin-1 (FIGS. 14A and 14B) and Presenilin-2 (FIGS. 14C and 14D) in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention;

(16) FIGS. 15A and 15B present mRNA (FIG. 15A) and protein blots (FIG. 15B) illustrating expression of Calstabin in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention; and

(17) FIG. 16 is a schematic showing of a kit, in accordance with some embodiments of the invention.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

(18) Overview

(19) Exemplary embodiments of the present invention are based on the discovery that certain electrical signals have an immediate effect on the phosphorylation of certain cardiac proteins, for example, at least one, at least 2, at least 3 or at least 5 proteins. Optionally, a set of proteins is affected, for example proteins that relate to calcium availability. In particular, an effect on proteins that control calcium pumping and others (all of which are known to change in heart failure), has been discovered. Selectively in which proteins were affected is also shown. Proteins not related to heart failure are apparently not affected. The effect has been found to work in a range of tissue organization levels starting from tissue homogenate, through isolated cells and even in in-vivo dog hearts. The effect remains (in dog hearts) for 15 minutes at least, and an initial effect is noticeable after as little as 1 minute or even a few seconds, such as 3-10 seconds, for tissue samples from a foci of signal application. Some proteins were phosphorylated and some were un-phosphorylated by the signal. Generally, the results show a change in the phosphorylation values in a direction of “normal” levels, or their being maintained at normal values. Experiments using pacing signals have not shown this effect.

(20) This phosphorylation effect is optionally in addition to or instead of effects on mRNA expression and protein expression levels, which, in some embodiments of the invention are normalized, changed to more normal values and/or changed in a manner which overcompensates for a deficit.

(21) In accordance with exemplary embodiments of the invention, this discovery is used in the design of methods and apparatus for treating tissue, especially cardiac tissue.

(22) For purposes of this specification and the accompanying claims, the terms “expression” and “regulation” should be construed in their broadest possible sense so that they include any factor which influences a biological activity. Thus expression and/or regulation include, but are not limited to factors such as control exercised at the genomic DNA level, the RNA level, the protein level and secretion level.

(23) With regard to genomic DNA, control may be exercised, for example, by altering a phosphorylation and/or a methylation state at one or more sites in a relevant genomic sequence.

(24) With regard to RNA, control may be exercised, for example, by regulating a rate of transcription of an mRNA transcript, and/or by altering a stability of an mRNA transcript, and/or by altering a relative amount of splice variants from a single mRNA transcript.

(25) With regard to protein, control may be exercised, for example, by regulating one or more cleavage events and/or addition of one or more side chains and/or protein stability. In some cases cleavage of a protein may increase a biological activity of the protein and/or facilitate secretion from a cell. In other cases, cleavage of a protein may reduce or eliminate activity of the protein. The term side chains, as used herein, denotes any molecular moiety which can be attached to an amino acid of the protein. In some cases, side chains are attached after translation. In other cases a tRNA molecule may attach an amino acid bearing a side chain during translation.

(26) With regard to secretion, control may be exercised, for example, by allowing or preventing of secretion of compounds, such as connective tissue dissolving enzymes and biochemical signaling molecules.

(27) Schematic Device

(28) FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a tissue controller 100 utilizing an electrical field to achieve a phosphorylation effect, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 comprises at least one electrode 102 adapted to apply an electric field to a tissue 104, for example a heart. A control circuitry 106 optionally controls the output of a power drive 108 which electrifies the at least one electrode 102. One or more optional physiological sensors 110 optionally provide feedback to be used by circuitry 106 in controlling the electrification of the at least one electrode 102, for example, general feedback about the heart (e.g., ECG) and/or a micro-biological sensor, for example for mRNA expression profiles or protein activity level. Optionally, such sensors include fiber-optic anti-body based sensors, DNA or protein chips and/or lab-on-chip type sensors. General body sensors, such as a sensor 112 may be used as well, for example, to estimate fluid retention or motion of the patient (e.g., rest/exercise as estimated using an accelerator).

(29) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 is in the form of a pacemaker or non-excitatory controller, for example as described in one or more of the following applications and publications.

(30) Exemplary protocols for the actual delivery of signals to the heart and/or implantation of wires to deliver CCM signals is set forth in PCT publication No. WO 97/25098 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,317,631, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Following is a list of patents and publications which describe apparatus and methods which may be useful in conjunction with the present invention, the disclosures of all of which are incorporated herein by reference, as are the disclosures of all publications mentioned in this application:

(31) Cardiac output enhanced pacemaker, U.S. Pat. No. 6,463,324, Apparatus And Method For Controlling The Contractility Of Muscles, U.S. Pat. No. 6,233,484, Controlling Heart Performance Using A Non-Excitatory Electric Field, U.S. Pat. No. 6,317,631, Muscle Contraction Assist Device, U.S. Pat. No. 6,285,906, Modulation Of Intracellular Calcium Concentration Using Non-Excitatory Electrical Signals Applied To The Tissue, PCT WO01/24871 and PCT WO00/12525, Electrical Muscle Controller, U.S. Pat. No. 6,363,279, Electrical Muscle Controller using a Non-Excitatory Field, U.S. Pat. No. 6,330,476, Cardiac Output Controller, U.S. Pat. No. 6,298,268, Cardiac Output Enhanced Pacemaker, U.S. Pat. No. 6,463,324, Sensor Based Regulation of Excitable Tissue Control of the Heart, WO00/27475, Regulation of Excitable Tissue Control of the Heart based on Physiological Input, WO00/27476, Trigger Based Regulation of Excitable Tissue Control of the Heart, U.S. Pat. No. 6,587,721, Pacing with Hemodynamic Enhancement, PCT WO/1998/023211A1, ETC Delivery via RV Septum, PCT WO0182771A3, Anti-Arrhythmia Device having Cardiac Contractility Modulation Capabilities, PCT WO01/30445, and Anti-Arrhythmic Device & a Method for Delivering Anti-Arrhythmic Cardiac Therapy, PCT WO01/30139.

(32) In some embodiments of the invention, the devices described in PCT publications WO 2005/056111, WO 2005/102188 and/or WO 2005/105013, with suitable changes in programming, are used.

(33) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 includes a memory in which various measured and/or expected values and behaviors of tissue and bio-chemicals are stored. Controller 100 may be implanted, only the electrodes implanted or be wholly outside the body, optionally only with a sensor implanted, optionally with a sensor inserted as needed.

(34) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 includes a molecule source 114 or controls an external molecule source (not shown), for example, using a data line or a wireless communication. Optionally, the molecule source sends a signal to controller 100 that a molecule was provided. Alternatively, an external trigger is used for both controller 100 and molecule source 114. Optionally, the source is provided using a tube or other delivery system 116. Such a source may be used, for example, as described below with reference to FIG. 4.

(35) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 uses one or more external sensors 120 (e.g., body ECG) and/or an external control 118 to guide its behavior. Optionally, an external programmer/monitor is used for communication from a patient to a caregiver, for example, a hospital or monitoring agency. Optionally, such a programmer/monitor is used to send programs and/or setting to controller 100 and/or send queries regarding the effects of certain treatment sequences. Optionally, controller 100 maintains a log of physiological measures and/or applied sequences and/or synchronization thereof. The log may be limited to times before and after the treatment and/or include random times or times triggered by various physiological measurements.

(36) Controller 100 optionally provides one or more of the therapeutic effects listed following this paragraph. Optionally, when two or more effects are provided, the effects are provided simultaneously or alternately (e.g., alternating or otherwise intermixed electrification signals to have the multiple desired effects). In some cases, the behavior of the controller is modified to provide a tradeoff between multiple effects. Some of the effects may be enhanced and/or caused by modification of protein activity and/or mRNA expression. In some cases, the sequences used for “standard” effects are modified so that desired biochemical effects as described herein are achieved. Such modification may be by per patient optimization or by off-line general quasi-optimization independent of any particular target patient. Optionally, the controller is programmable, for example, using outside programming to perform one or more of the following therapies, as described elsewhere:

(37) a) pacing;

(38) b) contractility enhancement;

(39) c) cardiac resynchronization;

(40) d) conduction velocity modification;

(41) e) remodeling;

(42) f) arrhythmia treatment and/or prevention;

(43) g) healing of diseased cardiac tissue; and

(44) h) stabilizing cardiac condition.

(45) Phosphorylation Modification

(46) As noted above and as will be described below, it has been discovered that pulses originally designed for cardiac contractility modification (CCM) have an immediate and/or a long range effect on genomic expression (e.g., as evidenced by mRNA expression) and/or on protein activity. However, it is believed that other pulses also have such effects. In particular, CCM pulses often require a certain timing, which may not be required for some phosphorylation effects. In particular also, CCM pulses may need to be applied more often for significant CCM effects than for significant phosphorylation effects. In particular also, phosphorylation effects may be achieved even when CCM or at least contractility increase is reversed or null or fluctuates. In particular also, phosphorylation effects may also be achieved using excitatory signals or a combination of excitatory and non-excitatory signals and not only with pure non-excitatory signals.

(47) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, within seconds of applying the electric field to the tissue in-vivo or in-vitro, existing phospholamban protein is phosphorylated, without the need to synthesize more protein, but rather making use of what is already there in a “dephosphorylated state”. In some embodiments, while the phosphorylation provides an “immediate response”, the treatment and/or phosphorylation act as a trigger for later synthesis or change in synthesis of proteins.

(48) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, one or both of between beat and within beat phosphorylation levels are controlled. For example, to reduce inter-beat effects, phosphorylation increase is kept at a level which cellular homeostasis mechanism can counteract by the next time a field is applied. In some cases, this requires one or both of control of field amplitude and frequency of application.

(49) Optionally, different proteins are differently controlled, for example intra-cellular and trans-membrane proteins.

(50) FIG. 4 is a flowchart of a method of therapy taking phosphorylation (or other biochemical change) into account, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention.

(51) At 402 a diagnosis of a patient is optionally made. Optionally, the patient is re-diagnosed as his therapy advances.

(52) At 404, one or more proteins to be affected by the electrical signals are selected. Optionally, the proteins are selected based on the diagnosis. Optionally, a set of related proteins, for example, calcium availability proteins, are selected. Optionally, one or more locations in the heart to be affected are selected. Optionally, target protein, mRNA and/or phosphorylation levels and/or other tissue or organ effects are selected.

(53) At 406, additional considerations are selected and/or rejected. In one example, the additional consideration is that the heart be paced and/or its LVEF (left ventricular ejection fraction) be increased. In a different example, considering that the pulses may be applied less often than pacing pulses, more painful treatments, such as external pulses, are used. Optionally, pro-arrhythmic pulses are used, for example, if the treatment is under a hospital setting or if the treatment is infrequent enough so that the total danger of arrhythmia over a time period is within acceptable parameters. Controller 100 optionally includes a defibrillation and/or fencing function applied through the same or other electrodes. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, immediate reduction in cardiac efficiency is acceptable, as this is under controlled conditions and increased cardiac health will follow shortly (e.g., within minutes, hours, days or weeks).

(54) In another example, a protein modifying signal is applied as an exciting signal. In another example, a protein modifying signal is applied in parts of the cardiac cycle where it reduces contractility (or dP/dt) and/or prevents normal signal propagation in the heart. Optionally, the part of the heart to which the signal is applied is decoupled or deactivated, for example, by cold, by fencing or by various cardioplegia drugs.

(55) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, it is assumed that the protein modification signal has an effect that is at least partly independent of the point in the cardiac cycle at which it is applied, at least for some proteins, such as proteins that are not electrically sensitive to the electrical cycle in the cell. For example, the effect depends on the availability of ATP for phosphorylation and not on the particular charge conditions in the cell. For some applied signals, the ion concentrations may have an effect on the efficacy of the signal and these may be dependent on the phase in cell depolarization/repolarization cycle. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the effect of a particular sequence and/or for a particular patient is taken into account when deciding on the strength and/or other parameter of a signal.

(56) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, it is assumed that a CMM-type signal has multiple effects on cardiac tissue which may be targeted separately, at least to some extent. Some effects are causative, but may be at least partially decoupled or require multiple inputs to generate a particular desired result. Some of the effects are:

(57) a) Effect on tissue polarization. This may include, for example, hyper-polarization, pacing and depolarization.

(58) b) Effect on repolarization/depolarization cycle. This may include, for example, extending a plateau duration.

(59) c) Effect on tissue function (external), for example, increased contraction strength and inhibition of mechanical and/or electrical activity.

(60) d) Effect on protein phosphorylation.

(61) e) Effect on genomic expression.

(62) f) Short vs. long term effects (e.g., remodeling).

(63) At 408 a pulse sequence and/or application schedule (e.g., once a week) are optionally generated or selected, for example, using a look-up table or by searching for a solution. Many optimization and search methods are known in the art and may be used to help determine a treatment protocol; for example, linear programming, hill climbing and trial and error experimentation (e.g., manual or automatic experiments). The particular characteristics of the tissue and/or patient may also be determined, for example, by experimentation or by a table linking disease type to an expected (and/or desired) effect of a change in the protocol. The generation is optionally performed on controller 100. Optionally, the generation is at a treatment center, for example, if the patient comes in periodically for treatment or, if treatment is by remote means, by using a telephone link to control an implanted or external field source.

(64) At 410, the sequence is applied to the tissue.

(65) At 412, compensation for the effects of the sequence may be provided, if necessary, for example, anti-arrhythmia treatment or oxygen provision. Optionally, the compensation is provided before and/or during the sequence application, or intermingled therewith.

(66) At 414 an additional therapy and/or cofactor are optionally provided, which optionally interact synergistically with the sequence, for example, on a cellular level or by one assisting the other to have an effect. In one example, the additional therapy is pharmaceutical. In another example, the additional therapy provides a cofactor or substrate which the proteins need to change their activity level. In another example, DNA therapy is made more specific by the proteins being generated and/or being activated by the field. In another example, exercise or rest is enforced so as to build-up a supply of substrate (e.g., protein or phosphor) on which the field can have an effect.

(67) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the additional therapy is applied systemically. Alternatively or additionally, at least one additional therapy is applied locally, for example, using targeting methods and/or local delivery methods as known in the art. Optionally, the methods of PCT publications WO 01/93951, WO 00/74773 and/or WO 01/93950, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference, are used. Optionally, in accordance with some of these methods, a same electrical field source applies both a therapeutic-effect field and a targeting/transport field.

(68) At 416, the effect of the field is optionally measured. Optionally, the measurement is in substantial real-time. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a gene or protein chip are used to detect protein, phosphorylation and/or mRNA levels. Alternatively or additionally, an optical sensor is used, for example an anti-body carrying optical detector. Optionally, the sensor is consumable and lasts, for example, for 5, 10, 20 or 100 uses (e.g., a multiplicity of single use sensors may be supplied). Optionally, spectroscopy methods are used, for example, Raman spectroscopy.

(69) While phosphorylation may be measured directly, optionally, cellular and/or organ behavior characteristics are measured instead, for example, stroke volume and effect on ECG.

(70) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, evaluation methods as described in U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/765,974, filed Feb. 7, 2006, by inventors Benny ROUSSO et al., the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, are used.

(71) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, evaluation is used to evaluate one or more of patients state, disease state and/or disease progression. Evaluation means may be included in controller 100 or be external to patient. Evaluation may be applied relatively continuously, for example more often than once a day, or less often for example, weekly or monthly or less often. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, evaluation is used to identify events where changes in therapy are desirable, for example, where therapy was insufficient, where patient reached his bounds or where adverse effects are found.

(72) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, evaluation comprises detecting changes in cardiac activation due to change sin conduction velocity. Optionally, the changes are detected by detecting a change in relative timing of events on an impedance measurement of the heart.

(73) At 418, the sequence is optionally repeated, optionally being modified according to the obtained results.

(74) Optionally, multiple feedback loops are maintained, for example, some parameters being measured on a second by second or minute by minute basis and others being measured on an hourly, daily, weekly and/or monthly schedule.

(75) Optionally, the measurements are off-line, for example, by biopsy taking. Optionally, the sample is frozen, for example in liquid nitrogen, to prevent changes. The results are optionally transmitted to controller 100.

(76) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the intended effect of the electrical therapy is to tip a balance between phosphorylation and dephosphorylation mechanisms in the cell. For example, the electric field can be applied so that a protein (such as calcium channel) is more easily phosphorylated, while dephosphorylation mechanisms stay the same (or vice-versa). This can cause both an immediate (intra-beat) effect on phosphorylation levels and, possibly depending on the ratio between the immediate effect and the dephosphorylation mechanism, can cause a longer term increase.

(77) In some cases, the long term increase is carried past normal levels, for example, to force a certain operation state of the controlled tissue.

(78) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification of proteins is used to achieve an effect that does not directly translate into long term changes in protein levels.

(79) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification is used to trigger a change in cellular state. For example, once certain cellular balances are upset, cellular mechanism will then change the operational mode of the cell in a desired manner.

(80) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification is used to support a failing cellular mechanism so that the cell can recover.

(81) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, electrical modification of biochemical behavior works together with existing control mechanism of the body, in addition to or instead of over-expression or under-expression of body biochemicals. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, existing control mechanism are not disrupted, but rather utilized, for example, using existing control mechanism to control functionality provided by the therapy, causing existing control mechanism to act when they are inhibited from acting for some reason and/or inhibiting over-reactive control mechanism.

(82) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification is used to damp or overcome an over-protective or run-away protection/control mechanism. One example, in cardiac cells, is a mechanism that when the cell feels over stressed, reduces contractility so that the cell can funnel its resources to viability. The electrical modification can be used to suppress this mechanism, so that contractility can resume, especially if the cell is actually capable of contraction and such contraction is suppressed or reduced by a run-away mechanism. Optionally, if there is a degradation in function, for example as detected by reduction in cardiac output or degraded ECG signals, the protein modification is stopped and is used as an indication that the cellular protection mechanism was not actually being over protective.

(83) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification increases calcium availability, thereby allowing existing control mechanism to “decide” if this increased availability should be utilized at any given instant to increase cardiac output. It is noted that the available increase and ability to work with existing mechanism can prevent degradation of heart tissue.

(84) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the therapy does not require any particular ligand or effector to tie to, but acts directly on bio-molecules.

(85) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the electrical modification is not treated as a systemic therapy, but as a local therapy, for example, limited in effect to tissue directly or indirectly affected.

(86) Exemplary Considerations for Pulse and/or Schedule Design

(87) Further to the examples above, following are exemplary considerations to be taken into account during sequence and/or schedule design. In particular, pulse length, power, shape, intra-pulse delay, repetition rate and/or delay between sequences may be modified and/or optimized to have a desired effect (or mainly such a desired effect).

(88) a) Pulse rate and length. Protein specificity is optionally achieved based on one or both of length of each pulse and delay between pulses. As noted, some proteins are significantly affected by short pulses. Such a protein can be selectively affected by using shorter pulses than needed for other purposes, and repeating the pulses at inter-pulse delays shorter than a relaxation time for the affected protein. Optionally, proteins are targeted based on their location in the cell and the type (e.g., amplitude, frequency and/or waveform) of pulse that is expected to penetrate sufficiently into the cell and/or affect the particular protein. Optionally, pulse rate and/or delays and/or length are modified as needed to achieve a target. This allows for targeting the effect to a limited number of proteins.

(89) b) mRNA vs. protein effects. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, mRNA and/or protein effects are selected by applying pulses which have a short term effect on proteins but the effect is not long enough to trigger significant mRNA expression effects. For example, if a protein phosphorylation level is not elevated for long enough, it may be that mRNA effects will be absent. However, phosphorylation may be increased multiple discrete times (with delays between them). In accordance with some embodiments of the invention, some mRNA effects are directly determined by proteins, so that protein levels may be controlled in order to achieve selective mRNA effects.

(90) c) Counter effects. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the control is selected so that mRNA effects and phosphorylation effects are not synchronized. For example, long plateaus of increased phosphorylation may be used to increase mRNA effect, but total phosphorylation modification may be selected to be insignificant over a time period. One reason for this may be lack of sufficient blood flow to the heart, so that acute changes are less desirable than gradual changes. In another example, pharmaceuticals which counteract an effect may be provided to effectively select certain effect(s). It is noted however, that phosphorylation changes associated with increased contractility did not show increased oxygen demand, in some experiments at least and in at least one experiment, even reduction in oxygen demands.

(91) d) Stability. Optionally, the long term effect of treatment is a new balanced set point between the various proteins. However, in the short term, such a balancing need not be achieved. Optionally, the heart is controlled so that the various proteins are not at a balance with regard to their respective activities.

(92) e) Physiological time scales. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the rate of application and/or duration relates to the time scales of physiological behavior, for example, sleep/wake cycles, eating times, time scale for formation of protein and/or mRNA transcription (e.g., 1-3 days and 1-4 hours, respectively).

(93) f) Triggering. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a pulse sequence is applied and/or modified in response to a trigger event. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, controller 100 has stored thereon (or on an external controller) a table of situations and response (e.g., different sequence application parameters). Alternatively or additionally, to a table, other programming means may be used, for example, logic and neural networks. Exemplary trigger events include, stress, arrhythmia, ischemia, eating, resting, changes in concentration of biochemicals (e.g., intra-cellular, extra-cellular and/or blood) and/or changes in electrical signals (e.g., ECG, EMG and/or EEG). Possibly, this allows the sequences to be applied only where there is a need and/or when they will have a significant effect.

(94) g) Treatment of areas and combination of therapies. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, treatment is applied to multiple areas. Optionally, sequences are not applied in parallel to different areas, but in series. For example, one area being treated and then a second area is treated. Optionally, the duration of each treatment and/or cycle time depend on one or more of stabilization times, relaxation times and/or length of effect times. In one example, each area is treated one hour on and several hours off, with other areas (e.g., 2, 3, 4) being treated in the “off” time. In an example of therapy combination, if the allowed delay between applications of one therapy are longer than the application times of another therapy, the two therapies can be applied in a mixed manner to tissue. In some cases, two therapies can be applied simultaneously, for example, signals with different electrical frequencies, each of which has a selective effect on different biochemical pathways, for example, one signal which affects nerves (e.g., high frequency) and a second signal which affects phosphorylation.

(95) One example is found in skeletal muscles, where their biochemical state (aerobic or anaerobic) can depend on nerve stimulation. Optionally, nerve stimulation is used to prompt cells to be more (or less) sensitive to phosphorylation control of phospholamban.

(96) h) Noticeability of effects. In some cases, it may be desirable to prevent any immediate effects (e.g., contractility changes), while still providing therapy. For example, if only 10% of beats are treated, this may not be noticeable on a daily basis, but the cumulative effects of protein synthesis will be noticeable after a while. Optionally, the sequence is provided in a manner which will not be noticeable over time scales of minutes (e.g. 1-20), hours (e.g., 1-10) and/or days (e.g., 1-7). In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the lack of noticeability is used to prevent interfering with the patient's lifestyle.

(97) i) Compliance. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, electrical field application does not require compliance from the patient and this can be a benefit. Optionally, applying the signal at a time when the patient is asleep, can prevent the patient from causing (intentionally or unintentionally) physiological states where the therapy is not applied for various reasons (e.g., safety, suitability). Optionally, however, compliance is required, for example, for taking of a medication that works together with the therapy. Optionally, if a patient does not indicate to the system that the medication was taken (e.g., using a wireless communication device), or if this lack is sensed by the system, the applied sequence is changed, initiated and/or inhibited, to compensate for this lack.

(98) j) Adaptation. In general, electrical signals are expected to be less susceptible to adaptation than pharmaceuticals, because the duration of electrical therapy and its onset can be controlled better than for pharmaceuticals. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, providing the therapy in a manner which is specific in time, prevent adaptation mechanism that relate to the mere existence of the therapy. Optionally, the therapy is changed over time, to prevent and/or counteract adaptation. Optionally, the therapy is changed when an adaptation is suggested by lack of or reduced reaction of the patient.

(99) In general, short term effects/goals and long term effects/goals may be at odds.

(100) Exemplary Pulse Properties

(101) While CCM pulses as described herein may be used, optionally, the pulses used are modified, for example, to save power and/or reduce the need for synchronization.

(102) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the applied pulses and/or sequences require considerably less power than CCM signals (e.g., 7.73 volts for 33 ms each 45 seconds), for example, only 20%, only 10%, only 5%, only 1%, or intermediate or smaller power usage. Optionally, the power per pulse is maintained, but the number of pulses in a time period is reduced, so that a cumulative power level is reduced (e.g., as compared to CCM signals).

(103) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the amplitude and/or duration used is insufficient for contractility, for example, being under the amount (if any) which causes a 20%, 10%, 3%, 2%, 1% or intermediate or smaller increase in contractility over a period of 5 minutes from initial application. For example, the application rate, power and/or duration are smaller.

(104) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the voltage used is lower than for CCM, for example, being 0.1, 0.5-1 volts, or less, or values such as 2V or 3V or other values smaller than 8 Volts. It should be noted that in the results shown below, the CCM signal was clearly more than required to achieve a meaningful phosphorylation, and thus a signal less powerful may be suitable. Larger voltages such as 10, 20 or 30 volts may be used in some embodiments.

(105) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the duration of the pulses is as short as 1 ms (with an optional associated increase in power), or longer, such as 10 ms, 20 ms or more. Alternatively, the signal may be lengthened, for example, being 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400 ms or more. Optionally, medication which increases a refractory period is used in conjunction with long pulses. Optionally, fast and short term acting medication is used during pulse application.

(106) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a total charge carried by a phosphorylation pulse is at least 5, 10, 30, 50 or 100 times the charge carried by a pacing pulse, such as a 3V 0.75 ms pulse.

(107) High power pulses are optionally applied as sub-threshold (for excitation) pulses.

(108) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the current for the pulse is between 0.2 ma and 20 mA, or intermediate or higher values. Other exemplary values for current (maximum current) are 0.4, 0.8, 1, 3, 7 or 10 mA (or intermediate values).

(109) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the applied signal comprises a series of pulses, for example, each pulse being bi-phasic, with each phase being 5.5 msec (˜100 Hz), applied in synchronization with a local pacing activity (e.g., at a delay thereto). Optionally, the series is of 2-3 pulses, or a larger number, for example, 5, 10, 20 or more or intermediate numbers.

(110) Other waveforms can be used, for example, sinus waves or triangular waves. Optionally, a delay is provided between pulses of a series. Optionally, a pulse includes both excitatory and non-excitatory components.

(111) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, signals applied outside the absolute refractory period are applied at lower amplitudes. The relevant thresholds are optionally determined by experimentation or using standard values (noting that diseased tissue may have a lower threshold and/or abnormal refractory periods. Optionally, medication is provided to extend the refractory period and allow a greater charge and/or longer pulse sequence to be delivered during a single beat.

(112) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a tune-up of the pulse parameter is carried out, for example, to enable power to be reduced to a minimum which has an effect and/or as the patient response changes.

(113) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the application schedule includes reducing the number of applied sequences and/or increasing the delay between them. For example, as shown below, a 1 min application has an effect even after 15 minutes. Thus, it is expected that a short application, for example, 20-60 seconds can be used to maintain more normalized phosphorylation levels for many minutes, for example, 15, 20, 40, 60 minutes or more. Optionally, a small number of spurts can thus be used to maintain relatively “normalized” levels for many hours, such as 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 24 or more per hour (e.g., one spurt for each beat or small number of beats such as 2, 5, 10, 20 or intermediate numbers). It should be noted that reduced frequency of application reduces total power needs.

(114) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the delays between spurts are not electric field free. For example, a continuous low level filed may be applied, for example for causing hyper polarization of the tissue, reducing contractility and/or modifying immediate conduction velocity. Similarly, a pulse sequence may maintain a baseline signal (constant or varying) even between pulses of the sequence. Optionally, the base line signal is selected to be non-excitatory, for example, by virtue of its frequency (e.g., too high or too low) and/or power level. As noted herein, such a baseline signal may generate enough charge to positively affect phosphorylation.

(115) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, different stages in treatment are identified: immediate, mRNA, protein and physical remodeling. Each state has its own time constants for initiation and for decline. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a therapy is applied long enough to have a noticeable effect on the stage where effect is required. Times of no therapy application may be selected to match the stage. For example, at remodeling stage, delays (no application times) of days or weeks may be acceptable. Optionally, even at such a remodeling stage, applications to continue a lower level stage (e.g., immediate) may be applied, at least part of the time. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a complete therapy plan may include desired effects on the different stages and an overlap of sequences and sequence application times is generated to address the stages required at the point in the process required. Optionally, a model is created linking the different stages and therapy application. This model is used to decide when therapy may be applied and when it must be applied. Further, additional therapies may be evaluated for application depending on how they impact the overall strategy. In some cases, it is expected that computer modeling and/or such mechanisms will be required to find a useful solution for a give case.

(116) In some embodiments, power is lower to reduce battery requirement, to prevent noticeable effects by a patient and/or prevent immediate tissue effects. Optionally, power is reduced for safety or comfort reasons, for example, by selecting a power level that does not affect other tissue or parts of tissue than the tissue for which therapy is desired.

(117) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the comfort factor considered is pain caused by inadvertent stimulation of nerves. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, pain is reduced and/or avoided, by selecting a subset of a plurality of leads, electrodes and/or power settings which minimizes pain and/or discomfort, while still providing useful therapy (e.g., increase phosphorylation). Alternatively or additionally, what is minimized is stimulation of the autonomous nervous system. Optionally, stimulation parameters are changed, as the patient habituates. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the effect of a signal is estimated by calculating the field which will reach target tissue and base don tables which link the field strength on effects. Optionally, the tables are generated using tissue homogenate and/or extracted cardiomyocytes. Optionally, the testing is on the patient's own tissue.

(118) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, pulse duration is in the range of 5-150 msec, for example, 10-40 msec. Alternatively pulse duration may be of one or combined groups in ranges such as 1 nsec-0.5 usec, 0.1-10 usec, 1-100 usec, 10-500 usec, 100-1000 usec, 500 usec-10 msec, 1-100 msec, 10-1000 msec, 100-10000 msec.

(119) Additional exemplary pulse properties are now described.

(120) Applied signals optionally are composed of such pulses, and their combinations. Signals may also be applied to excitatory tissue within the refractory period of such tissue, or outside such refractory period, or during a relative refractory period extending after the end of such period. Signals may be composed of pulses, square, saw-tooth, smooth or continuous waveforms, whether applied in stand alone pulses, in series, continuously, or superimposed.

(121) Signals may be applied on every tissue activation cycle, e.g. every heart beat, or other physiological cycle (breathing, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems cycle, other muscle contraction, etc). Alternatively, the application may be intermittently in only some of the cycles. Alternatively, signals may be applied at random timing or at a pre-determined timing.

(122) Treatment period may last, for example seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or years.

(123) Treatment may be alternating such as to be applied for some time period, and some rest period intermittently. For example, such treatment schedule may be activated for several hours (e.g. about 1-5 hours) every several hours (e.g. every 3-24 hours), or activated 12 hours out of every 24 hours (12 continuous hours every day or 12 intermittent hours: 1 hour on followed by 1 hour off).

(124) Treatment schedule may be configured for alternating among days or weeks, such as 3 days of treatment followed by 2 days of rest, repeatedly, or 4 weeks of treatment followed by 1 week of rest.

(125) Alternatively, signals may be applied to provide treatment in a manner that changes according to changes in physiological condition. Such change in physiological may be sensed by the device, or may be communicated to the device.

(126) Signals may be selected from a group of signals, each with properties selected for a desired effect, and the device may alternate among the signals, superimpose two or more of the signals, automatically adjust one or more of the signals, and/or change the ratio among the delivery time and magnitude of those signals.

(127) Genes and Related Proteins

(128) Following is a partial list of genes (and corresponding proteins) whose expression is correlated with some types of heart failure (termed “heart failure” in short below). In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, treatment is configured so that a particular gene/protein will be affected in a desirable manner. It is noted that in accordance with some embodiments of the invention, different heart failure states are identified based on the protein expression, mRNA expression and/or protein activity profiles; or based on changes in such profiles in response to treatment, for example, immediate response or longer term response (e.g., hours, weeks or months). The treatment may target particular proteins, pathways or groups of proteins, for example, SR proteins. Optionally, the treatment aims to undo the negative effects described below, for example, by modifying the protein level and/or activity. Optionally, analysis and/or treatment relates simultaneously to several genes, for example a set of two, a set of three, a set of five or sets of other numbers of genes, for example genes selected form the list below. Optionally, the set includes genes from at least two or from at least three different gene type classifications. A profile used for assessment can include, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more markers from each of the types of mRNA, protein and protein activity.

(129) Various Genes

(130) a) ANP=atrial natriuretic peptide or A-type natriuretic peptide, is increased in heart failure. The increase in ANP is related to increased atrial enlargement and stretch which is bad. Increased ANP correlates with increased mortality and morbidity in heart failure.

(131) b) BNP=Brain natriuretic peptide or B-type natriuretic peptide is increased in heart failure. BNP is elaborated from ventricular tissue. The increase in BNP is due largely to increased LV size and stretch which is bad in heart failure. Increased BNP in heart failure correlates with increased mortality and/or morbidity. BNP is also a member of the so-called “fetal gene program” which also negatively impacts heart failure.

(132) c) GAPDH. This is a gene whose expression does not change in heart failure and is used as “a housekeeping gene” to ensure good quality RNA extraction. If the expression of this gene changes during RT-PCR this may indicate poor RNA quality and the results of all other gene expression measurements may become questionable.

(133) SR Genes

(134) d) RYR2=ryanodine receptors also referred to as sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release channels. These channels control the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This is the calcium signal that is needed to activate the contractile apparatus (actin myosin cross bridging). These channels are hyperphosphorylated in heart failure and turn very active and, therefore, are “leaky,” leading to possible calcium overload which is bad for the heart muscle cell. Reducing or normalizing phosphorylation may be desirable for these proteins.

(135) e) NCX=sodium calcium exchanger. Under normal conditions, the NCX takes calcium out of the cell in return for Na. This maintains calcium homeostasis and prevents calcium overload which is bad for muscle cell function and survival. In heart failure the NCX is increased and is hyperphosphorylated and may begin to work in what is called “reverse mode”, to compensate for reduced SERCA-2A activity, and may cause calcium overload (=diastolic dysfunction). Too much activity in forward mode depletes SR calcium (=systolic dysfunction).

(136) f) PLB=Phospholamban. This is an essential sarcoplasmic reticulum protein. Under normal conditions PLB is phosphorylated (PLB-P). When that happens it activates SERCA-2a (calcium ATPase) which then pumps calcium from the cytosol into the SR and thus prevents calcium overload. PLB is decreased in heart failure and is dephosphorylated. Because of that, SERCA-2a activity is reduced and it is less able to pump calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This leads to calcium overload. When the SR has reduced calcium, there is less calcium release through the calcium release channels and contractility decreases.

(137) g) SERCA-2a=calcium ATPase. This sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) pump, under normal conditions, pumps calcium from the cytosol into the SR. In heart failure SERCA-2a decreases dramatically and its activity also decreases leading to calcium overload and poor intracellular calcium cycling. This decreases contraction strength.

(138) h) Calsequestrin (CSQ). Clasequestrin is an SR protein involved in calcium sequestration and does not change in heart failure. Because it does not change in heart failure, it is frequently used as a housekeeping gene. It may also be used to normalize when samples are inconsistent in the loading process.

(139) Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs)

(140) i) MMP1. This gene is involved in the degradation of connective tissue at all levels and, for this reason, its elevation in heart failure is not desirable and counteracted in some embodiments of the invention.

(141) j) MMP2 and MMP9. These are referred to as to as “gelatinases”. Inhibiting gelatinases in the setting of heart failure appears to be helpful particularly with respect to reducing “interstitial fibrosis” or the accumulation of connective tissue or collagen in the cardiac interstitium. Reducing interstitial fibrosis leads to improved LV diastolic compliance and, hence, improved diastolic filling and function.

(142) Stretch Response Genes

(143) Stretch response genes are up-regulated in the presence of progressive LV dilation and myocytes stretch as occurs in heart failure. The importance of these genes is they trigger maladaptive cardiomyocytes hypertrophy which then leads to abnormal calcium cycling.

(144) k) p38=p38 alpha-beta mitogen activated protein kinese. This is a stretch response gene. Its expression increases in heart failure and that can lead to many abnormalities including the development of hypertrophy and activation of multiple transcription factors that lead to activation of the fetal gene program. An increase in P38 correlates with maladaptive hypertrophy and ventricular enlargement. This indicates a bad prognosis for heart failure.

(145) l) p21 ras=This is also a stretch response gene. Its expression increases in heart failure due to ventricular enlargement and stretch. When stretch and wall stress increases in heart failure, these mechanical factors increase a family of cell surface proteins known as integrins. Integrins, when activated, lead to increase in p21 ras and p38 and both lead to maladaptive hypertrophy.

(146) m) Integrin-a5. This is a cell surface receptor gene whose protein acts as a mechanical transducer. It is activated in response to mechanical stretch or stress mediated by LV dilation. When activated, it promotes regulation of stretch response protein. Down regulation of this gene in heart failure is a desirable feature of some embodiments of the invention.

(147) Fetal Program Genes

(148) n) Alpha-MHC=alpha myosin heavy chain is reduced in heart failure. Because the alpha isoform of MHC is the isoform responsible for increased velocity of shortening of cardiac muscle cells, a reduction in alpha MHC impacts negatively on function/contraction of the failing ventricle. Alpha MHC restoration is associated (and optionally provided by some embodiments of the invention) with LV contraction improvements.

(149) o) Beta1-Adrenergic Receptor. This gene is down-regulated in heart failure. Drugs such as metoprolol which are selective beta-1 receptor blockers which up-regulate the beta-1 receptor improve mortality and morbidity in heart failure and appear to also improve, albeit in a limited way, exercise tolerance. Up-regulation of this gene is viewed as a positive development in some embodiments of the invention which enhances the sensitivity of the contractile element of catecholamines.

(150) SERCA-2a, mentioned above, is also a member of the so-called fetal program gene.

(151) Calcium Binding Proteins

(152) Enhanced expression of calcium binding proteins such as S100A1 and sorcin improve contractility by increasing calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Expression of these proteins can also modify the behaviors of ryanodine calcium release channels. Alternatively down-regulation (or avoiding upregulation) of these calcium binding proteins can diminish contractility. This may be applicable to hypercontractile states of the heart associated with certain diseases such as hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. Contractility may also be reduced using hyperpolarizing fields.

(153) Experimental Results—Long Term (“Chronic”) and Short Term (Several Hours)

(154) Before describing experiments in which an immediate effect was discovered on phosphorylation, experiments on relatively long term effects will be described, including effects that occur (at least to a significant degree) after a few hours of continuous CCM application and after 3 months. These experiments generally show that LV function in dogs with HF improves without an associated increase in MVO.sub.2.

(155) In this experimental preparation, chronic HF is produced by multiple sequential intracoronary embolizations with polystyrene Latex microspheres (70-102 μm in diameter) which result in loss of viable myocardium, LV enlargement and a decrease in LV ejection fraction. 14 healthy mongrel dogs weighing between 20 and 30 kg underwent coronary microembolizations to produce HF. Embolizations were performed one week apart and were discontinued when LV ejection fraction, determined angiographically, was <30%. Microembolizations were performed during cardiac catheterization under general anesthesia and sterile conditions. Animals were induced with intravenous oxymorphone hydrochloride (0.22 mg/kg) and diazepam (0.17 mg/kg) and a plane of anesthesia was maintained with 1-2% isoflurane. Some of the results shown herein use fewer than all dogs.

(156) Two weeks after the target LV ejection fraction was reached, dogs were anesthetized as described above, intubated and ventilated with room air. The right external jugular vein was surgically exposed and used to position the CCM leads. Two standard active fixation leads were advanced into the right ventricle and positioned on the anterior and posterior septal grooves and were used to sense ventricular activity and deliver CCM electrical signals. A third active fixation lead was positioned in the right atrium for p-wave sensing. The leads were connected to a CCM signal generator (OPTIMIZER™ II, Impulse Dynamics NV, Curacao NV). The generator was implanted in a subcutaneous pocket created on the right side of the neck. All 14 animals were implanted and all were allowed to recover. Studies were performed 2 weeks after OPTIMIZER™ System implantation. This period of time was allowed to ensure that the leads stabilized in place.

(157) Two weeks after OPTIMIZER™ System implantation, dogs were anesthetized and underwent a pre-treatment left and right heart catheterization to assess hemodynamics and measure MVO.sub.2. Dogs were then randomized to an active treatment group (n=7) or to a sham-operated control group (n=7). In the active treatment group, the OPTIMIZER™ system was activated to deliver CCM therapy. CCM therapy was administered for 5 hours/day based on a duty cycle of one hour ON (CCM signal ±7.73 volts) and 3 hours and 48 minutes OFF for 3 months. Sham-operated control dogs did not receive any therapy whatsoever and were also followed for 3 months. At the end of 3 months of therapy or follow-up, all hemodynamic measures were repeated including MVO.sub.2. After completion of all hemodynamic measurements and while under general anesthesia, the dogs' chest was opened and the heart rapidly harvested and tissue from the inter-ventricular septum and LV free wall was obtained and prepared for histological and biochemical evaluation. Tissue from 6 normal dogs was obtained and prepared in the same manner and used for comparisons. All tissue was stored at −70° C. until needed.

(158) To address certain aspects of the mechanisms of action of CCM therapy, a series of 6 additional dogs underwent intracoronary microembolizations to produce HF as described earlier. In these dogs, under general anesthesia, a mid-sternotomy was performed, the pericardium was opened and epicardial CCM leads were placed on the anterior wall between the 2nd and 3rd diagonal branches. Hemodynamic measurements including measurements of MVO.sub.2 were made before and 2 hours after continuous CCM signal delivery at 7.73 volts. At the end of 2 hours of therapy, myocardial samples were obtained from the LV anterior wall in the region of the CCM leads and from the LV posterior wall remote from the CCM leads. Left ventricular tissue from 6 normal dogs and 6 HF dogs that were untreated was obtained and prepared in the same manner and used for comparisons. All tissue was rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −70° C. until needed.

(159) Aortic and LV pressures were measured with catheter-tip micromanometers (Millar Instruments, Houston, Tex.) during cardiac catheterization. LV end-diastolic pressure was measured from the LV waveform. Single-plane left ventriculograms were obtained during each catheterization after completion of the hemodynamic measurements with the dog placed on its right side. Ventriculograms (approximately 60 right anterior oblique projection) were recorded on 35 mm cine film at 30 frames per second during the injection of 20 ml of contrast material (Reno-M-60, Squibb, Princeton, N.J.). Correction for image magnification was made with a radiopaque calibrated grid placed at the level of the LV. LV end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume were calculated from ventricular silhouettes using the area-length method, such as described in Dodge H T, Sandler H, Baxley W A, Hawley R R. Usefulness and limitations of radiographic methods for determining left ventricular volume. Am J Cardiol. 1966; 18:10-24, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Stroke volume was calculated as the difference between LV end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume. Total coronary blood flow (CBF), and MVO.sub.2, were measured and calculated as described, for example, in Chandler M P, Stanley W C, Morita H, Suzuki G, Roth B A, Blackburn B, Wolff A, Sabbah H N. Acute treatment with ranolazine improves mechanical efficiency in dogs with chronic heart failure. Circ Res. 2002; 91:278-280, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. LV mechanical efficiency was calculated as the ratio of LV power to MVO.sub.2 following the same paper.

(160) Calsequestrin (CSQ), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), ryanodine receptor (RyR), total phospholamban (PLB), phosphorylated PLB (P-PLB), sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium ATPase (SERCA-2a), and β.sub.1-adrenergic receptor (β.sub.1-AR) were measured by Western Blots. Briefly, LV homogenate was prepared from −100 mg LV powder as described, for example, in Gupta R C, Mishra S., Mishima T, Goldstein S, Sabbah H N. Reduced sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca.sup.2+-uptake and Phospholamban Expression in Ventricular Myocardium of Dogs with Heart Failure. J Moll Cell Cardiol. 1999; 31:1381-1389, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference and protein determined using the Lowry method, for example as described in Lowry Ohio, Rosebrough N.J., Farr A L, Randall R J. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature. 1951; 27:680-685, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. CSQ, a calcium-binding protein located in the SR and is unchanged in HF was used to normalize protein loading on the gel. Approximately 20-100 μg protein of each sample was separated on 4-20% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and the separated proteins were electrophoretically transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane. The accuracy of the electrotransfer was confirmed by staining the membrane with 0.1% amido black. For identification of the desired protein, the nitrocellulose blot was incubated with the appropriately diluted primary monoclonal or polyclonal antibody specific to each protein based on the supplier's instructions. Antibody-binding proteins were visualized by autoradiography after treating the blots with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (anti-rabbit) and ECL color developing reagents. ANP, BNP, β.sub.1-AR, SERCA-2a, PLB, or RyR-specific antibody recognized 20, 14, 65, 110, 5.5, and 250 kDa protein bands respectively. Total P-PLB was quantified in SDS-phosphoprotein-enriched fraction (PPE) prepared from LV homogenate using PLB specific monoclonal antibody. P-PLB at serine-16 or threonine-17 was quantified in SDS-LV homogenate using primary antibodies specific to the P-PLB at serine-16 or at threonine-17. PPE was prepared from LV tissue using a BD Bioscience phosphoprotein enrichment kit, for example as described in Gupta R C, Mishra S, Yang X P, Sabbah H N. Reduced inhibitor 1 and 2 activity is associated with increased protein phosphatase type 1 activity in left ventricular myocardium of one-kidney, one-clip hypertensive rats. Mol Cell Biochem. 2005; 269:49-57, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Band intensity was quantified using a Bio-Rad GS-670 imaging densitometer and expressed as densitometric units×mm.sup.2. In all instances, the antibody was present in excess over the antigen and the density of each protein band was in the linear scale.

(161) mRNA expression of glyseraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), α-myosin heavy chain (MHC), β.sub.1-AR, ANP, BNP, SERCA-2a, total PLB, RyR and CSQ was measured. Total RNA with an absorbance ratio (260 nm/280 nm) above 1.7 was isolated from frozen LV tissue as described in Mol Cell Biochem. 2005; 269:49-57. Approximately 4-10 μg RNA was reverse-transcribed into cDNA in an assay volume of 80 microliter. For each polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 2-5 μl first-strand cDNA was added to 50 μl of a reaction mixture containing pmol of each forward and reverse primer of each gene, 200 μM of each dNTP, 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.8), 50 mM KCl, 0.1% Triton-X100 and 3.0 mM MgCl.sub.2 and 1 unit platinum Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and PCR allowed to proceed for 20 to 40 cycles. For each gene, PCR cycle was determined to ensure that the gene product is forming in linear range. PCR products were analyzed by subjecting 20 μl of each reaction mixture to electrophoresis on 1%-1.5% ethidium-bromide-agarose gels. Band size of the products was compared with standard DNA size markers and confirmed by sequencing of the forward (F) and reverse (R) primers for each gene and gene product. mRNA expression of α-MHC was measured by amplification of cDNA by reverse transcriptase-PCR followed by digestion with Pst1 restriction enzyme as described, for example, in Feldman A M, Ray P E, Silan C M, Mercer J A, Minobe W, Bristow M R. Selective gene expression in failing human heart: quantification of steady-state levels of messenger RNA in endomyocardial biopsies using the polymerase chain reaction. Circulation. 1991; 83: 1866-1872, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Fluorescent band intensity was quantified using a Bio-Rad GS-670 imaging densitometer and expressed as optical density×mm.sup.2.

(162) From each heart, 3 transverse slices (approximately 3 mm thick) one each from basal, middle and apical thirds of the LV, were obtained. For comparison, tissue samples obtained from 7 normal dogs were prepared in an identical manner. From each slice, transmural tissue blocks were obtained and embedded in paraffin blocks. From each block, 6 μm thick sections were prepared and stained with Gomori trichrome to identify fibrous tissue. The volume fraction of replacement fibrosis, namely, the proportion of scar tissue to viable tissue in all three transverse LV slices, was calculated as the percent total surface area occupied by fibrous tissue using computer-based video densitometry (MOCHA, Jandel Scientific, Corte Madera, Calif.). Transmural tissue blocks were obtained from the free wall segment of the slice, mounted on cork using Tissue-Tek embedding medium (Sakura, Torrance, Calif.), and rapidly frozen in isopentane pre-cooled in liquid nitrogen and stored at −70° C. until used. Cryostat sections were prepared and stained with fluorescein-labeled peanut agglutinin (Vector Laboratories Inc., Burlingame, Calif.) after pretreatment with 3.3 U/ml neuraminidase type V (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) to delineate the myocyte border and the interstitial space, including capillaries, for example as described in Liu Y H, Yang X P, Sharov V G, Nass O, Sabbah H N, Peterson E, Carretero O A. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists in rats with heart failure. Role of kinins and angiotensin II type 2 receptors. J Clin Invest. 1997; 99:1926-1935, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Sections were double stained with rhodamine-labeled Griffonia simplicifolia lectin I (GSL I) to identify capillaries. Ten radially oriented microscopic fields (magnification ×100, objective ×40, and ocular 2.5), were selected at random from each section and photographed using 35 mm color film. Fields containing scar tissue (infarcts) were excluded. Average cross-sectional area of each myocyte was measured using computer-based planimetry. The volume fraction of interstitial collagen (reactive interstitial fibrosis) was calculated as the percent total surface area occupied by interstitial space, minus the percent total area occupied by capillaries (following J Clin Invest. 1997; 99:1926-1935). Capillary density was calculated as the number of capillaries per square millimeter and as the index capillary per fiber ratio. The oxygen diffusion distance was measured as half the distance between two adjoining capillaries.

(163) To ensure that all hemodynamic measures were similar at baseline, comparisons were made between the two study groups before any embolization and at the time of randomization before initiating active therapy. To assess treatment effect, the change in each measure from pre-treatment to post-treatment was calculated for each of the study groups and then compared between groups. For these comparisons a t-statistic for two means was used with a probability value ≤0.05 considered significant. Within group comparisons between pre-treatment and post-treatment hemodynamic measures were made using a Student's paired t-test with p≤0.05 considered significant. Histomorphometric, biochemical and molecular differences between normal dogs, sham-operated untreated HF dogs and CCM-treated HF dogs were examined using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with α set at 0.05. If significance was achieved, pairwise comparisons were performed among groups using the Student-Newman-Kuels test with a probability value of ≤0.05 considered significant. All hemodynamic, ventriculographic and histomorphometric assessments were made by investigators blinded to treatment group.

(164) The results of these experiments are presented in summary below and in greater detail after.

(165) At baseline, all dogs entered into the study had hemodynamic measures that were within normal limits for conditioned mongrel dogs. The hemodynamic and ventriculographic results obtained before initiating therapy or follow-up (pre-treatment) and 3 months after initiating therapy or follow-up (post-treatment) are shown in Table 1 for dogs randomized into the CCM-active treatment group and Table 2 for dogs randomized into the sham-operated untreated HF group. In sham-operated dogs, comparison of pre-treatment to post-treatment showed no differences in heart rate, systolic aortic pressure, LV end-diastolic pressure or stroke volume (Table 1). In this group, LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volume increased significantly while LV ejection fraction decreased significantly. This was associated with an increase in total CBF and an increase in MVO.sub.2. LV mechanical efficiency tended to decrease but the reduction was not statistically significant (Table 1).

(166) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Chronic Hemodynamic and Angiographic Findings in Sham-Operated Dogs with Heart Failure Before (Pre-Treatment) and After 3 Months of Follow-up (Post-Treatment) (n = 7) Pre-Treatment Post-Treatment P-Value Heart Rate (beats/min) 89 ± 4  101 ± 7    NS Systolic Aortic Pressure (mmHg) 97 ± 6  104 ± 6    NS LV EDP (mmHg) 13 ± 1  14 ± 1   NS LV EDV (ml) 67 ± 2  77 ± 2   0.0001 LV ESV (ml) 49 ± 2  60 ± 2   0.0001 LV EF (%) 27 ± 1  23 ± 1   0.001 Stroke Volume (ml) 18 ± 1  17 ± 1   NS Total LV CBF (ml/min), n = 6 42 ± 4  59 ± 6   0.015 MVO.sub.2 (μmols/min), n = 6 193 ± 25  286 ± 36   0.026 LV Efficiency (%), n = 6 28 ± 4  21 ± 3   NS
LV=left ventricular; EDP=end-diastolic pressure; EDV=end-diastolic volume; ESV=end-systolic volume; EF=ejection fraction; CBF=coronary blood flow; MVO.sub.2=myocardial oxygen consumption. P-Value=Probability value based on comparison between Pre- and Post-Treatment. NS=Not significant.

(167) In CCM-treated dogs, comparison of pre-treatment to post-treatment also showed no differences in heart rate and systolic aortic pressure. LV end-diastolic pressure decreased as did LV end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume while stroke volume and LV ejection fraction increased (Table 2). This functional improvement was associated with a decrease in total CBF and a decrease in MVO.sub.2 along with a significant increase in LV mechanical efficiency (Table 2).

(168) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Chronic Hemodynamic and Angiographic Findings in CCM-Treated Dogs with Heart Failure Before (Pre-Treatment) and 3 Months After Initiating Treatment (n = 7) Pre-Treatment Post-Treatment P-Value Heart Rate (beats/min) 78 ± 3  87 ± 3  NS Systolic Aortic Pressure (mmHg) 101 ± 4   102 ± 5   NS LV EDP (mmHg) 14 ± 1  8 ± 1 0.01 LV EDV (ml) 70 ± 6  66 ± 5  0.08 LV ESV (ml) 52 ± 6  45 ± 4  0.008 LV EF (%) 27 ± 1  33 ± 1  0.0001 Stroke Volume (ml) 18 ± 1  21 ± 1  0.0001 Total LV CBF (ml/min) 73 ± 7  43 ± 3  0.005 MVO.sub.2 (μmols/min) 275 ± 39  168 ± 19  0.01 LV Efficiency (%) 19 ± 4  36 ± 5  0.0001

(169) The change (Δ) in hemodynamic and ventriculographic measures from pre-treatment to post-treatment was compared between the two study groups (Table 3). Heart rate and systolic aortic pressure were unchanged. Compared to sham-operated controls, CCM-treated dogs had a significantly lower LV end-diastolic pressure, end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume along with significantly higher LV ejection fraction and stroke volume (Table 3). This improvement in LV function in CCM-treated dogs was accompanied by a significant reduction of CBF and MVO.sub.2 and a significant increase in LV mechanical efficiency (Table 3).

(170) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 TREATMENT EFFECT Comparison of the Change (Δ) from Pre-treatment to Post-Treatment between Sham-Operated Untreated Heart Failure Dogs and CCM-Treated Heart Failure Dogs Sham-Operated CCM-Treated Untreated HF Dogs HF Dogs P-Value Heart Rate (beats/min) 12 ± 8  8 ± 4 NS Systolic Aortic Pressure (mmHg) 6 ± 6 1 ± 7 NS LV EDP (mmHg) 1 ± 2 −6 ± 2  0.029 LV EDV (ml) 10 ± 1  −4 ± 2  0.0001 LV ESV (ml) 11 ± 1  −7 ± 2  0.0001 LV EF (%) −4 ± 1  6 ± 1 0.0001 Stroke Volume (ml)   −1 ± 0.5     3 ± 0.4 0.0001 Total LV CBF (ml/min), n = 6  18 ± 5   −30 ± 7   0.0001 MVO.sub.2 (μmols/min), n = 6  93 ± 30  −96 ± 27  0.001 LV Efficiency (%), n = 6 −7 ± 4   16 ± 2  0.0001
P-Value=Probability value based on comparison between sham-operated and CCM-treated dogs. Other abbreviations are the same as in table 1.

(171) Histomorphometric results are shown in Table 4. Volume fraction of replacement fibrosis, volume fraction of interstitial fibrosis and cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area were significantly higher in sham-operated dogs compared with normal dogs. Volume fraction of replacement fibrosis was reduced by 23%, volume fraction of interstitial fibrosis was reduced by 16% and average cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area was reduced by 19% compared to sham-operated HF dogs. Capillary density decreased in sham-operated HF dogs while oxygen diffusion distance increased when compared to normal dogs (Table 4). CCM therapy restored capillary density and oxygen diffusion distance to near normal levels (Table 4).

(172) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Chronic Histomorhometric Findings in Left Ventricular Myocardium of Normal Dogs, Sham-Operated Untreated Heart Failure Dogs and CCM-Treated Heart Failure Dogs Sham-Operated CCM- Normal Untreated Treated Dogs HF Dogs HF Dogs VFRF (%) 0.0 14.3 ± 1.5*  11.0 ± 0.8*† VFIF (%) 3.7 ± 0.1 11.2 ± 0.3*   9.4 ± 0.7*† MCSA (μm.sup.2) 409 ± 10   719 ± 36*  581 ± 28*† CD (# capillaries/mm.sup.2) 2607 ± 80   1882 ± 67*   2192 ± 117*† CD (# capillaries/fiber) 1.00 ± 0.0   0.92 ± 0.02*   1.03 ± 0.02*† ODD (μm) 8.9 ± 0.2 11.7 ± 0.3*  10.2 ± 0.2*†
VFRF=Volume fraction of replacement fibrosis; VFIF=Volume Fraction of Interstitial Fibrosis; MCSA=Cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area; CD=Capillary density; ODD=Oxygen diffusion distance. *=p<0.05 vs. normal dogs; †=p<0.05 vs. Sham-operated dogs.

(173) In a set of short term experiments, 6 dogs that had micro-embolization induced HF were used. The CCM signal was a 7.73 volt, epicardial LV anterior wall signal. The definitions for the various variables follow Circulation Research 91:278, 2002, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The signal is applied to the epicardial surface of the heart.

(174) Where not otherwise specified, CCM is a pulse at 80 applications per minute (synchronized to a heart beat, if any), at 7.73 Volts, with between 4 and 6 phases, each phase being 5.56 ms long and being continuous and of opposite polarity of a previous phase. The number of phases was not changed within an experiment. The signal was generally applied to a septum, from a right chamber, with a distance of 1-2 cm between an electrode pair used to apply the signal.

(175) The marking “NL” indicates normal tissue levels.

(176) FIGS. 2A-2C show the improvement of LV function without MVO.sub.2 increase, in CCM treated dogs as a function of time and compared to baseline values.

(177) FIGS. 2D-2G show changes in mRNA expression of alpha-MHC, ANP, BNP and SERCA-2a in normal, HF and HF dogs with CCM treatment respectively, after several hours of treatment.

(178) As will be shown below, effects on protein phosphorylation (at least) can be shown after a short time.

(179) FIG. 2H shows phosphorylated phospholamban normalized to total phospholamban following therapy of several hours (indicated herein as “short-term”). FIG. 2I shows corresponding blots using a Western Blotting method. It should be noted that both phospholamban levels and phosphorylation levels thereof improve with therapy.

(180) FIG. 2J shows reduction in mRNA expression of NCX following CCM treatment. FIG. 2K shows a general (or slight reduction) normalization of NCX protein values while still maintaining increased relative phosphorylation. This may allow some compensation for disturbed cardiac function.

(181) FIG. 2L shows decreased mRNA expression of GATA-4, to even below normal levels. FIG. 2M shows that protein expression of GATA-4, is however, still increased relative to normal. This may be useful for control of NCX and/or other proteins. This result also indicates that merely controlling mRNA may not sufficiently determine the cellular behavior, as protein levels and/or phosphorylation levels may compensate or over compensate. In general, however, the levels are normalized as compared to HF.

(182) FIGS. 2N and 2O show the effect of chronic (e.g., 3 months) treatment with CCM on mRNA expression profiles. Normalization of these important proteins can be seen.

(183) It should be noted that the electric field can operate differently on different proteins, for example, directly affecting some proteins and these proteins indirectly affecting the behavior and/or levels of other proteins. It should also be noted that there are multiple pathways in the cells and the electrical treatment may affect multiple (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4 or more) pathways in parallel. The resulting effects on proteins may be increasing or decreasing their expression and/or activity levels. Different such effects may be desirable for different proteins and/or different disease conditions. Different proteins may be predisposed (e.g., based on their structure, surrounding materials and/or existing pathways) to differently increase and/or decrease. A particular experiment with Phospholamban is described below.

(184) The following tables summarize the results on mRNA expression for normal dogs (NL), dogs with HF and dogs with HF and chronic CCM treatment. Protein levels and phosphorylation levels are described later on. A summarizing table is also provided later on in the application.

(185) TABLE-US-00005 Dog Numbers HF-Control HF + CCM 02-097 02-106 02-098 02-107 02-103 02-108 02-130 02-012 03-045 03-023 04-004 03-050 04-018 04-005

(186) TABLE-US-00006 mRNA Expression for GAPDH NL HF-Control HF + CCM 223 195 246 227 195 223 238 223 232 215 241 250 217 227 229 192 237 237 240 232 Mean 219 223 236 STD 15 20 10 SEM 6 8 4 ANOVA = 0.16

(187) TABLE-US-00007 mRNA Expression for TNF-alpha NL HF-Control HF + CCM 48 235 85 53 223 117 36 182 107 28 194 98 39 232 144 31 234 81 240 92 Mean 39 220 103 STD 10 23 22 SEM 4 9 8 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(188) TABLE-US-00008 mRNA Expression for Activin-A NL HF-Control HF + CCM 101 302 174 104 295 142 109 282 150 136 269 148 153 263 100 199 232 92 245 88 Mean 134 270 128 STD 38 26 34 SEM 15 10 13 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(189) TABLE-US-00009 mRNA Expression for Tubulin-alpha NL HF-Control HF + CCM 140 164 82 120 160 124 125 162 144 117 185 146 124 165 160 125 176 141 163 168 Mean 125 168 138 STD 8 9 28 SEM 3 3 11 ANOVA = 0.002 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(190) TABLE-US-00010 mRNA Expression for ANP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 21 35 26 19 29 27 17 27 29 12 28 27 18 38 28 23 35 26 43 24 Mean 18 34 27 STD 4 6 2 SEM 2 2 1 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(191) TABLE-US-00011 mRNA Expression for TIMP-1 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 160 164 131 185 188 146 184 243 136 203 235 191 248 185 151 270 130 170 173 174 Mean 208 188 157 STD 42 40 22 SEM 17 15 8 ANOVA = 0.052

(192) TABLE-US-00012 mRNA Expression for IL-6 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 277 556 430 302 533 409 349 524 433 337 547 409 350 558 421 348 552 381 567 365 Mean 327 548 407 STD 31 15 25 SEM 12 6 10 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(193) TABLE-US-00013 mRNA Expression for Titin NL HF-Control HF + CCM 183 137 281 172 222 278 241 182 242 285 197 224 313 124 257 294 135 205 196 231 Mean 248 170 245 STD 60 38 28 SEM 24 14 11 ANOVA = 0.005 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(194) TABLE-US-00014 mRNA Expression for Tubulin-beta NL HF-Control HF + CCM 88 123 75 77 127 79 68 115 94 65 146 91 60 133 108 62 116 98 133 105 Mean 70 128 93 STD 11 11 12 SEM 4 4 5 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(195) TABLE-US-00015 mRNA Expression for BNP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 32 173 30 13 182 47 21 166 59 31 173 56 22 194 35 17 186 25 163 58 Mean 23 177 44 STD 8 11 14 SEM 3 4 5 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(196) TABLE-US-00016 mRNA Expression for TIMP-2 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 233 252 222 200 247 239 223 238 235 230 239 229 210 229 225 246 240 219 224 198 Mean 224 238 224 STD 17 10 13 SEM 7 4 5 ANOVA = 0.12

(197) TABLE-US-00017 mRNA Expression for MMP-1 NL HF-Control HF+ CCM 24 40 29 20 38 26 18 32 30 24 31 24 23 41 25 33 54 34 32 37 Mean 24 38 29 STD 5 8 5 SEM 2 3 2 ANOVA = 0.003 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(198) TABLE-US-00018 mRNA Expression for MMP-9 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 35 60 45 25 69 49 29 43 49 26 71 29 31 44 42 27 41 64 39 42 Mean 29 52 46 STD 4 14 11 SEM 2 5 4 ANOVA = 0.003 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(199) TABLE-US-00019 mRNA Expression for p38 MAPK NL HF-Control HF + CCM 48 41 40 52 60 44 25 46 28 41 57 29 27 59 33 25 67 20 56 20 Mean 36 55 31 STD 12 9 9 SEM 5 3 3 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(200) TABLE-US-00020 mRNA Expression for NCX NL HF-Control HF + CCM 25 85 31 30 115 41 36 63 55 32 139 50 28 39 46 29 121 53 126 62 Mean 30 98 48 STD 4 37 10 SEM 2 14 4 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(201) TABLE-US-00021 mRNA Expression for Betal-receptor NL HF-Control HF + CCM 22 11 18 21 10 17 20 6 17 19 8 18 24 12 19 25 11 22 13 17 Mean 22 10 18 STD 2 2 2 SEM 1 1 1 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(202) TABLE-US-00022 mRNA Expression for MMP-2 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 25 56 42 22 42 29 24 40 30 22 39 28 23 41 30 24 48 27 41 33 Mean 23 44 31 STD 1 6 5 SEM 0 2 2 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(203) TABLE-US-00023 mRNA Expression for p21RAS NL HF-Control HF + CCM 85 284 297 88 295 270 162 305 259 167 277 248 202 299 228 213 295 202 284 201 Mean 153 291 244 STD 55 10 36 SEM 22 4 13 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(204) TABLE-US-00024 mRNA Expresion for Integrin-a5 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 7 17 7 10 14 9 4 14 10 11 15 7 8 25 6 7 20 10 12 16 Mean 8 17 9 STD 2 4 3 SEM 1 2 1 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(205) TABLE-US-00025 mRNA Expression for GATA-4 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 83 153 84 142 247 103 136 138 242 105 240 191 78 164 113 71 254 254 233 135 Mean 103 204 160 STD 31 50 69 SEM 12 19 26 ANOVA = 0.012 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(206) TABLE-US-00026 mRNA Expression for SERCA-2a NL HF-Control HF + CCM 218 167 172 235 189 200 242 159 194 238 178 192 250 178 195 232 179 198 171 193 Mean 236 174 192 STD 11 10 9 SEM 4 4 3 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(207) TABLE-US-00027 mRNA Expression for PLB NL HF-Control HF + CCM 221 170 217 229 149 224 255 155 237 241 146 222 248 167 210 200 149 190 109 182 Mean 232 149 212 STD 20 20 19 SEM 8 8 7 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(208) TABLE-US-00028 mRNA Expression for CSQ NL HF-Control HF + CCM 261 274 192 258 271 225 247 281 262 280 291 299 268 250 276 269 276 281 279 281 Mean 264 275 259 STD 11 13 38 SEM 5 5 14 ANOVA = 0.47 p vs. NL NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(209) TABLE-US-00029 mRNA Expression for RYR NL HF-Control HF + CCM 40 25 39 36 23 30 31 29 15 42 18 33 34 21 34 42 22 58 17 43 Mean 38 22 36 STD 5 4 13 SEM 2 2 5 ANOVA = 0.008 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(210) TABLE-US-00030 mRNA Expression for α-MHC NL HF-Control HF + CCM 176 133 192 212 136 165 219 115 158 218 140 181 221 179 176 224 192 194 144 192 Mean 212 148 180 STD 18 27 14 SEM 7 10 5 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05
Short Discussion of Some Results

(211) Phospholamban is down regulated in heart failure and is nearly normalized with CCM therapy. This may explain the improvement in LV function by CCM treatment. CCM appears to normalize the RYR message which is consistent with proper therapy. The up-regulation of alpha-MHC with CCM may be contributing to the sustained long-term improvement in LV ejection fraction. Decrease in MMP1 following CCM therapy is in and of itself desirable. Inhibiting gelatinases, as shown, is beneficial, possibly reducing interstitial fibrosis and leading to improved LV diastolic compliance and, hence, improved diastolic filling and function. p21RAS and p38 mitogen activated protein kinese (MAPK) are emissions of stretch response genes which are down-regulated following CCM therapy and correlate with reduced cardiomyocytes hypertrophy. Integrin-a5 is clearly normalized following long-term CCM therapy. Up-regulation of Beta1-Adrenergic Receptor is viewed as a positive development which enhances the sensitivity of the contractile element of catecholamines. Beta-blockers are known to enhance the sensitivity of the myocardium to exogenous as well as endogenous catecholamines when used in heart failure patients over long periods of time in excess of 3 months. In the normal heart, beta blockers reduce the sensitivity of the heart to catecholamines. As will be described below, the therapies as described herein may be used together with beta-blockers, for both short and long term synergistic effects.

(212) Possibly, some therapies according to the present invention will focus on general improvement of health, while other therapies will focus on increasing tissue responsiveness, for example, to certain drugs, and thus focus on improving fewer than all mRNA and/or protein and/or phosphorylation indicators.

(213) Experimental Results—Immediate

(214) The inventors of the present application have discovered that, surprisingly, phosphorylation effects for at least some proteins can be generated in immediate time frames, such as less than 1 minute and even less than 10 or 5 seconds in some cases. Further, an immediacy of effect is also characterized by a reduced number of intermediate stages, indicated by the fact that protein phosphorylation effects can be imposed even in tissue homogenate. Further, specificity of the phosphorylation effects to certain proteins that are relevant for HF is also shown. Further, a lack of effect of an exemplary pacing signal is also shown.

(215) Tissue Homogenate

(216) FIGS. 3A and 3B show the effect of a CMM signal applied to tissue homogenate from LV failed heart tissue. As can be seen, even a 10 second signal was sufficient to generate noticeable and significant changes in phosphorylation. Changes in phosphorylation are shown in Serine-16 Monometric PLB (Phospholamban) form, Threonin-17 mometric PLB form, Serine 16 Pentametric PLB form and Ryanodine channels.

(217) The tissue homogenate was prepared in the following manner. Approximately 14 g frozen LV tissue from a dog with chronic HF in 42 ml 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5 was homogenized three times for 20 seconds each time using a 10-mm generator (Omni International, Waterbury, Conn.) at setting 10. The homogenate was then filtered through 4 layers of cheese cloth. The resulting homogenate was stored in ice and its protein concentration was determined by the Lowry method.

(218) The CCM signals were delivered to the homogenate as follows. The homogenate was diluted 2 fold in homogenate buffer and subsequently aliquotted 3 ml each in assay tubes. Assay tubes were divided into 2 sets (Set A and Set B), each subset consisting of 7 assay tubes. CCM signals were delivered for 10″, 30″, 1′, 5′, 30′, and 60′ in one of the sets, while the other set served as time control. The reaction was stopped by adding concentrated SDS. Protein assay on all the samples were performed by Lowry method.

(219) Phosphorylation of PLB at serine-16 (Ser-16) and threonine-17 (Thr-17) was determined by Western blotting using specific antibody as described in Mishra S, Sabbah H N, Jain J C, Gupta R C: “Reduced Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity and expression in LV myocardium of dogs with heart failure”, Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 284:H876-H883, 2003, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Briefly, approximately 100 microgram protein for Se-16 and 40 microgram for Thr-17 were elecrophoresed on 18% SDS-gel, protein was transferred from the gel to nitrocellulose membrane, the blot was probed with primary and secondary antibodies and finally bands were visualized by an ECL method.

(220) It should be noted that tissue homogenate was generally activated at room temperature, below the normal operating temperature of a heart. This and other features of the results suggest a direct chemical or electrical effect on the proteins which is possibly divorced or semi divorced from cell function and/or complex biochemical mechanisms (e.g., more than two or three steps or with feedback). Such divorcing may help in the application of the effect under various conditions including various polarization conditions and tissue health states. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, it is noted that the effect does not directly depend on the membrane polarization of the cell, therefore, this phosphorylation effect may be achieved at times other than a refractory period. Depending on the non-excitatory signal applied, therapy may be applied during a refractory period to avoid inadvertent pacing. However, if the tissue is desensitized, for example, using a suitable electrical signal, cold, or pharmaceutical, there is no need for specific timing. In another example, suitable charge provided during a pacing signal may be sufficient for a therapeutic effect.

(221) For example, a typical pacing pulse is up to 1 ms and 5V, which at 500 Ohm lead impedance is 50 micro-joule. A CCM pulse as described herein is 2000 micro-joule per pulse and more if multiple pulses are provided in a single sequence (e.g., 4 pulses=8000 micro-joules).

(222) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the provided charge per beat is at least 100, at least 300, at least 500, at least 1000, at least 2000, at least 5000 or more or intermediate values of micro-joules. It is hypothesized, that at least for some treatments, the applied field has to be above a minimum charge per heart beat, or the effect is lost, for example, due to electrical masking in the cell or due to biochemical interactions that occur within a heart beat.

(223) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the applied energy is directed mostly at a tissue having a volume of less than 20 cm.sup.3, less than 10 cm.sup.3, less than 5 cm.sup.3, less than 3 cm.sup.3 or larger or intermediate volumes.

(224) Phosphorylation Dependency on Protein Kinese (PK) Inhibitors

(225) Additional experiments of tissue homogenate were carried out in the presence and absence of protein kinese inhibitors. The homogenate was the same as above, from dogs with heart failure. Two different phosphorylation locations (threonin-17 and serine-16) on phospholamban produced two different results in the presence of the kinese inhibitors (in its absence, the above results were reproduced). The kinese inhibitor is STAUROSPORIN, a Pale yellow solid. Advertised as a potent, cell-permeable, and broad spectrum inhibitor of protein kinases. Inhibits protein kinase A (IC.sub.50=7 nM), CaM kinase (IC.sub.50=20 nM), myosin light chain kinase (IC.sub.50=1.3 nM), protein kinase C (IC.sub.50=700 pM), and protein kinase G (IC.sub.50=8.5 nM). Also inhibits platelet aggregation induced by collagen or ADP but has no effect on thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Induces apoptosis in human malignant glioma cell lines. Arrests normal cells at the G.sub.1 checkpoint. Purity: 97% by HPLC. CAS 62996-74-1. In the presence of the kinese inhibitors serine-16 responded close to usual, possibly with a somewhat delayed and/or reduced response (statistics are weak) and threonin-17 has a reduced and delayed response, in that no immediate effect was apparent, but some effect was apparent under longer stimulation times. This suggests two things. First, the pathways for phosphorylation are different for the two locations, when stimulated by an electric field. Second, there appears to be a synergistic effect between kinese and electric field application. These differential and synergist effects suggest the ability to select pathways in affecting tissue

(226) Without being limited to any particular hypothesis, it is hypothesized by the inventors that the synergistic effect is caused by the behavior of Akt (or similar proteins), which is described in a paper Gallo P, Santonastasi M, Ceci M, Scimia C, Di Sciascio G, Condorelli G. Akt overexpression improves cardiac function and ameliorates heart failure in pressure overload animal model phosphorylating key Ca2+ handling proteins. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 21:76A, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. In this paper, it is shown that Akt selectively phosphorylates phospholamban at the threonin-17 site. In this, non-limiting explanation, the different sites on phospholamban are physiologically set up to be phosphorylated under different mechanism and while an electric field has a direct effect on both locations, one location is more sensitive to electric fields and the other location is more sensitive to biochemical interaction (or at least such as mediated by kinese). It is further hypothesized that the effect of the electric field applied by the therapy mimics (possibly in an enhanced manner) a regulated effect provided naturally by electrical activity of the heart.

(227) The following tables summarize the experimental results for serine-16:

(228) TABLE-US-00031 Control + Control + PK Control CCM PK Inhibitor Inhibitor + CCM P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 10 sec 5.9 19.9 8.0 22.9 7.6 19.3 9.0 15.1 13.5 21.2 13.7 11.0 Av 9.0 20.2 10.2 16.3 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 20 sec 8.6 26.7 14.0 14.1 6.9 15.6 12.2 18.2 10.4 16.9 10.6 17.5 Av 8.6 19.7 12.3 16.6 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 30 sec 8.8 21.5 6.8 14.3 15.0 20.2 9.7 18.1 18.0 11.1 11.9 13.0 Av 13.9 17.6 9.4 15.1 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 60 sec 12.5 17.5 15.0 22.7 10.3 17.1 9.8 17.1 7.2 24.3 Av 10.0 19.6 12.4 19.9

(229) The following tables summarize the experimental results for theronin-17:

(230) TABLE-US-00032 Control + Control + PK PK Inhibitor + Control CCM Inhibitor CCM P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 10 sec 7.8 10.2 8.9 14.6 10.2 11.4 12.2 9.9 10.7 7.3 9.5 8.7 Av 9.5 9.6 10.2 11.1 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 20 sec 8.5 26.4 13.2 15.0 9.1 41.1 6.2 12.5 16.0 42.3 7.6 8.3 Av 11.2 36.6 9.0 12.0 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 30 sec 7.4 16.1 8.2 24.0 5.4 13.4 12.8 11.5 7.7 9.5 16.0 14.9 Av 6.8 13.0 12.3 16.8 P-PLB with CCM Signals Delivered for 60 sec 8.7 28.0 18.3 17.1 13.2 20.5 12.1 12.9 15.2 17.8 11.2 Av 12.4 22.1 13.9 15.0
Failed Cardiomyocytes, Pacing and CCM

(231) FIG. 3C shows phosphorylation of a Ryanodine receptor in isolated (in-vitro) failed cardiomyocytes, after application of CCM for 10, 20, 30 and 60 seconds. Lack of significant immediate effect is consistent with the lack of long-term effect shown above and serves to show that the effect of the CCM signal can be made specific to certain proteins.

(232) FIG. 3D shows phosphorylation of PLB and GATA, as compared to that of CSQ, in failed isolated myocytes. As can be seen a phosphorylation effect is shown for some of the proteins, which matches the general results for tissue homogenate. Also noteworthy is that the effect increases over time at different rates for different proteins. Relaxation times of phosphorylation levels for different proteins are also generally different. The change in GATA-4 is important because when GATA-4 is phosphorylated, this process decreases the activity of the sodium calcium exchanger and helps contractility improve quickly.

(233) FIG. 3E shows that a pacing signal applied at 3V for pulses of 0.75 msec did not have any significant immediate effect on any of the proteins. Possibly, this is caused by the reduced current density of the pacing pulse and/or due to the substantially lower charge transport rate. Possibly, any minimal effect of the pacing signal is relaxed in the times between signals. Optionally, the pacing signal is not strong enough to pass a certain minimal threshold of effect.

(234) In Vivo Heart

(235) The following tables summarize the results from 2 heart failure dogs in which phosphorylation of phospholamban (PLB-P) after application of CCM signals was studied, while taking biopsies at 1, 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Normalization to CSQ was used to correct for any effect of blood in the biopsies. The increase in PLB-P matches a measured increase in dP/dt measured in these experiments. It is noted that PLB-P levels remained elevated for 15 minutes after application of CCM, suggesting a temporally sparse field application treatment. Optionally, such a prolonged elevation has a long term effect on mRNA expression. Various locations on the LV were tried, all with similar results, as shown below.

(236) TABLE-US-00033 PLB-P @ PLB-P PLB-P Normalized CCM Time CSQ Ser-16 Thr-17 to CSQ (min) (du) (du) (du) Ser-16 Thr-17 First dog 0 146.09 34.80 28.98 0.24 0.20 First set 1 145.94 60.61 34.72 0.42 0.24 5 125.88 60.67 50.51 0.48 0.40 10 103.76 92.46 33.09 0.89 0.32 First dog 0 108.38 21.94 25.55 0.20 0.24 Second 1 107.27 71.44 82.46 0.67 0.77 set 5 112.83 63.31 61.28 0.56 0.54 10 72.57 32.85 61.98 0.45 0.85 First dog 0 103.06 26.76 20.16 0.26 0.20 Third set 1 116.54 65.60 96.83 0.56 0.83 5 139.30 79.67 144.88 0.57 1.04 10 112.53 61.41 62.99 0.55 0.56 15 121.23 55.86 68.86 0.46 0.57 Second 0 117.25 20.93 16.76 0.18 0.14 Dog 1 119.63 36.03 33.77 0.30 0.28 First set 5 132.55 39.08 38.74 0.29 0.29 10 80.44 22.24 16.80 0.28 0.21 Second 0 111.84 33.72 40.98 0.30 0.37 Dog 1 118.21 62.71 71.28 0.53 0.60 Second 5 68.39 31.31 32.52 0.46 0.48 set 10 38.79 26.91 29.31 0.69 0.76 Second 0 114.50 24.17 28.37 0.21 0.25 Dog 1 121.82 44.52 62.01 0.37 0.51 Third set 5 122.01 46.91 68.04 0.38 0.56 10 134.98 69.64 94.13 0.52 0.70 15 86.65 35.72 31.55 0.41 0.36 Average of all 6 sets obtained from 2 dogs PLB-P Normalized to CSQ CCM Time (min) Ser-16 Thr-17 0 0.23 0.23 1 0.47 0.54 5 0.46 0.55 10 0.56 0.57 15 0.44 0.47 Two sets only (3rd set from each dog)

(237) Without being limited to any particular hypothesis, it is hypothesized by the inventors that the applied electric field either has a direct effect on the proteins or has an effect on a cofactor or protein that enhance phosphorylation of proteins. The above “Voltage-dependent potentiation . . . ” paper suggests that an electric field can directly modify the natural phosphorylation rate of a protein.

(238) Human Results

(239) mRNA expression levels were measured for some genes in human subjects. Therapy with non-excitatory cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) electrical signals was delivered to LV muscle during the absolute refractory period improves LV function in patients with HF.

(240) The effects of 3 months CCM therapy on mRNA expression of cardiac fetal and SR genes in 5 patients with advanced HF were examined. In the experiment, right sided endomyocardial biopsies were obtained at baseline, prior to activating CCM therapy, and at 3 and 6 months thereafter. CCM therapy was delivered in random order of ON for 3 months and OFF for 3 months. mRNA expression measurement was performed in a blinded fashion as to the ON/OFF order of therapy. Expression of the fetal genes A-type (ANP) and B-type (BNP) natriuretic peptides and α-myosin heavy chain (MHC), and the SR genes SERCA-2a, phospholamban (PLB) and ryanodine receptors (RYR) was measured using RT-PCR and bands quantified in densitometric units (du). The percent change in du between baseline and the ON and OFF 3 months phases was calculated.

(241) The 3 months therapy OFF phase was associated with increased expression of ANP and BNP and decreased expression of α-MHC, SERCA-2a, PLB and RYR (Table). In contrast, the 3 months ON therapy phase resulted in decreased expression of ANP and BNP and increased expression of α-MHC, SERCA-2a, PLB and RYR (Table). This suggests that in patients with HF, CCM therapy reverses the cardiac maladaptive fetal gene program and normalizes expression of key SR Ca2+ cycling genes. These observations are consistent with the observed improvement in LV function in patients with HF following long-term CCM therapy.

(242) TABLE-US-00034 mRNA Expression (% Change from Baseline) OFF Phase ON Phase P-Value ANP 82 ± 26 −57 ± 9  0.009 BNP 81 ± 28 −55 ± 9   0.007 α-MHC 29 ± 9  80 ± 16 0.004 SERCA-2a 21 ± 10 45 ± 14 0.039 PLB  4 ± 18 93 ± 45 0.084 RYR 20 ± 6  34 ± 6  0.002
Protein Results

(243) FIGS. 5A-5R shows protein expression results for the following proteins in chronic dogs, in control, heart failure and treated heart failure conditions: CSQ, SERCA-2a, PLB, RyR, NCX, IL-6, GATA-4, GAPDH, MMP-9, Tubulin-Beta, GATA-1, MMP-1, Tubulin-Alpha, Titin, TIMP-1, Integrin-α5, TNF α, p21ras, p38 MAPK, TIMP-2, β.sub.1-AR, MMP-2, ANP and BNP.

(244) It should be noted that some blots are shown twice, in order to facilitate comparison between them.

(245) Following is a tabular analysis of these results with a short discussion.

(246) FIGS. 5A-5D show results for the following SR proteins: Calsequestrin, phospholamban, SERCA-2a (Calcium ATPase) and ryanodine receptors; the following Pump Proteins: Sodium-Calcium Exchanger; the following Transcription Factors: GATA-4; and the following Cytokines: Interleukin-6.

(247) In general, these seven proteins moved directionally the same as their mRNA expression. Phospholamban showed complete normalization as did SERCA-2a.

(248) These results are consistent with the concept that the CCM acute and chronic effect is mediated by favorable modification of calcium cycling within the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Also notable is that under chronic condition, the CCM signals appear to normalize the over-expression of the sodium-calcium exchanger.

(249) Re FIG. 5A:

(250) TABLE-US-00035 Dog Numbers-same for all FIGS. 5A-5R HF-Control HF + CCM 02-097 02-106 02-098 02-107 02-103 02-108 02-130 02-012 03-045 03-023 04-004 03-050 04-018 04-005

(251) TABLE-US-00036 Protein Expression of CSQ NL HF-Control HF + CCM 49 41 33 41 44 40 38 33 48 45 42 38 50 41 40 34 37 47 44 61 Mean 43 40 44 STD 6 4 9 SEM 3 1 3 ANOVA = 0.49 p vs. NL p vs. HF-Control

(252) TABLE-US-00037 Protein Expression of Phospholamban NL HF-Control HF + CCM 64 30 75 63 23 60 74 27 97 63 29 65 75 18 80 52 30 76 29 69 Mean 65 27 75 STD 8 5 12 SEM 3 2 5 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(253) TABLE-US-00038 Protein Expression of SERCA-2a NL HF-Control HF + CCM 77 37 94 77 69 67 89 54 68 117 58 57 95 39 59 74 57 111 63 53 88 54 73 16 12 21 7 4 8 ANOVA = 0.007 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(254) TABLE-US-00039 Protein Expression of RyR NL HF-Control HF + CCM 129 75 115 123 98 107 153 102 119 104 86 86 140 100 78 104 86 91 72 147 126 88 106 20 12 23 8 5 9 ANOVA = 0.009 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(255) Re FIG. 5B:

(256) TABLE-US-00040 Protein Expression of NCX HF + NL HF-Control CCM 26 62 30 43 50 39 29 38 35 36 45 29 41 49 50 44 76 25 58 51 37 54 37 8 12 10 3 5 4 ANOVA = 0.013 <0.05 NS p vs. NL <0.05 p vs. HF-Control

(257) Re FIG. 5C:

(258) TABLE-US-00041 Protein Expression of IL-6 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 56 74 31 56 51 70 43 87 51 50 84 106 47 107 65 86 118 66 90 51 56 87 63 15 22 23 6 8 9 ANOVA = 0.033 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(259) Re FIG. 5D:

(260) TABLE-US-00042 Protein Expression of GATA-4 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 90 158 63 97 179 93 75 100 129 105 133 126 103 157 113 106 127 103 110 141 96 138 110 12 28 26 5 11 10 ANOVA = 0.018 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(261) FIGS. 5E-5H show results for GAPDH (Housekeeping), transcription factor GATA-1 which did not change, matrix metalloproteinase-9 which changes consistent with mRNA expression and cytoskeletal protein Tubulin-beta which also changes consistent with what is shown for mRNA expression. GATA-1 is shown in comparison with GATA-4.

(262) Re FIG. 5E

(263) TABLE-US-00043 Protein Expression of GAPDH NL HF-Control HF + CCM 32 34 34 36 33 36 35 37 32 35 32 28 34 31 35 31 27 46 27 30 34 32 34 2 4 6 1 1 2 ANOVA = 0.54 p vs. NL NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(264) Re FIG. 5F:

(265) TABLE-US-00044 Protein Expression of MMP-9 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 394 637 668 448 779 569 452 821 611 455 733 551 488 687 504 426 643 572 742 486 444 720 566 32 69 62 13 26 23 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(266) Re FIG. 5G:

(267) TABLE-US-00045 Tubulin-beta NL HF-Control HF + CCM 512 1008 656 644 810 693 584 973 647 450 725 543 390 693 654 301 778 675 1078 689 480 866 651 126 151 51 52 57 19 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(268) Re FIG. 5H

(269) TABLE-US-00046 Protein Expression of GATA-1 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 83 108 118 97 110 121 99 60 130 115 109 122 106 106 121 93 94 75 103 101 99 99 113 11 18 19 4 7 7 ANOVA = 0.22 p vs. NL NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(270) FIGS. 5I-5L show results from the proteins matrix-metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1), cytoskeletal proteins tubulin alpha and titin, tissue inhibitor of matrix-metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and cell surface protein integrin-alpha-5.

(271) There were no apparent changes in TIMP-1. CCM therapy also had no significant effect on integrin-alpha-5. It should be noted that integrin-alpha-5 can be affected by other means, such as mechanically constraining the heart (e.g., thus directly affecting its transduction function).

(272) CCM therapy, however, significantly down-regulated MMP-1, tubulin-alpha and titin which is consistent with the observation with respect to the effects of CCM on mRNA expression of these genes.

(273) Re FIG. 5I

(274) TABLE-US-00047 Protein Expression of MMP-1 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 521 936 482 449 894 574 425 883 511 484 1066 538 437 985 527 525 997 539 971 476 474 962 521 43 63 34 18 24 13 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(275) Re FIG. 5J

(276) TABLE-US-00048 Tubulin-alpha NL HF-Control HF + CCM 196 298 217 161 322 233 129 359 187 136 283 214 142 307 239 158 260 257 274 250 154 300 228 24 33 24 10 13 9 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(277) TABLE-US-00049 Protein Expression of Titin NL HF-Control HF + CCM 609 232 368 575 211 285 528 218 306 412 302 213 400 231 248 467 223 329 191 243 499 230 285 86 35 54 35 13 20 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(278) Re FIG. 5K:

(279) TABLE-US-00050 Protein Expression of TIMP-1 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 609 914 786 718 835 849 915 863 811 694 679 888 724 773 781 834 676 762 787 709 749 790 798 109 90 58 44 34 22 ANOVA = 0.57 p vs. NL NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(280) Re FIG. 5L:

(281) TABLE-US-00051 Integrin-alpha-5 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 228 340 254 153 455 239 160 437 212 223 358 193 185 332 168 201 356 253 324 249 192 372 224 31 52 34 13 20 13 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(282) FIGS. 5M-5P show results from the proteins TNF-α (showed in comparison to IL-6), p21ras, p38 MAPK, TIMP-2 (showed in comparison to TIMP-1 and β1-AR.

(283) The lack of change in TIMP-2 is consistent with previous observations. Long-term CCM therapy significantly reduced protein expression of the cytokine TNF-α and significantly reduced the expression of the stretch proteins p21ras as well as p38 MAPK. This is consistent with the observation that CCM therapy attenuates cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Also to be noted is up-regulation of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor, which is favorable.

(284) Re FIG. 5M

(285) TABLE-US-00052 Protein Expression of IL-6 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 56 74 31 56 51 70 43 87 51 50 84 106 47 107 65 86 118 66 90 51 56 87 63 15 22 23 6 8 9 ANOVA = 0.033 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(286) TABLE-US-00053 Protein Expression of TNFα NL HF-Control HF + CCM 44 155 63 44 161 89 31 149 53 47 125 87 51 168 75 39 180 96 176 80 43 159 78 7 19 15 3 7 6 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(287) Re FIG. 5N:

(288) TABLE-US-00054 Protein Expression of p21ras NL HF-Control HF + CCM 44 112 92 57 142 89 38 138 83 30 123 110 34 66 61 36 73 53 90 72 40 106 80 10 31 20 4 12 7 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(289) TABLE-US-00055 Protein Expression of p38 MAPK NL HF-Control HF + CCM 21 46 32 15 52 21 13 41 35 17 67 36 14 43 24 19 38 19 33 15 17 46 26 3 11 8 1 4 3 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(290) Re FIG. 5O:

(291) TABLE-US-00056 Protein Expression of TIMP-2 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 84 62 85 73 55 80 61 43 68 93 89 72 87 88 56 88 84 79 81 86 81 72 75 12 18 11 5 7 4 ANOVA = 0.53 p vs. NL NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(292) Re FIG. 5P:

(293) TABLE-US-00057 Protein Expression of β1-AR NL HF-Control HF + CCM 135 66 86 75 30 97 88 41 53 111 64 95 111 113 86 93 56 96 64 113 102 62 89 21 26 18 9 10 7 ANOVA = 0.015 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(294) FIGS. 5Q and 5R show results for MMP-2 (in comparison to MMP-1 and MMP-9) and ANP and BNP.

(295) Re FIG. 5Q:

(296) TABLE-US-00058 Protein Expression of MMP-2 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 47 74 41 29 77 30 31 57 25 42 78 56 38 81 63 42 51 65 41 61 38 66 49 7 16 16 3 6 6 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(297) Re FIG. 5R:

(298) TABLE-US-00059 Protein Expression of ANP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 64 104 62 77 179 60 108 271 39 82 128 89 92 135 62 103 113 76 97 54 88 147 63 17 61 16 7 23 6 ANOVA = 0.002 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(299) TABLE-US-00060 Protein Expression of BNP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 31 84 78 62 94 62 107 111 69 65 87 69 57 94 84 66 77 77 89 73 65 91 73 25 11 7 10 4 3 ANOVA = 0.002 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05
Comparison of mRNA Levels and Protein Levels in the LV Free Wall on Chronic Treated Dogs

(300) Referring back to the 14 dogs tested for chronic effects, mRNA expression in LV free wall of the housekeeping gene GAPDH and CSQ, the fetal program genes consisting of β.sub.1-AR, αMHC, ANP, and BNP and the cardiac SR genes SERCA-2a, PLB, and RyR are shown in table 5 quantified in densitometric units. Expression of GAPDH and CSQ was unchanged among the 3 study groups namely, normal dogs, sham-operated HF dogs and HF CMM-treated dogs. mRNA expression of β.sub.1-AR, αMHC, SERCA-2a, PLB and RyR decreased and expression of ANP and BNP increased significantly in sham-operated HF dogs compared to normal. Three months of CCM therapy restored the expression of all genes to near normal levels. Protein expression in the LV free wall of CSQ, β.sub.1-AR, ANP, BNP SERCA-2a, PLB and RyR are also shown in Table 5 quantified in densitometric units. Protein levels of CSQ were unchanged among the 3 study groups. Protein levels of β.sub.1-AR, SERCA-2a, PLB and RyR decreased and that of ANP and BNP increased significantly in sham-operated HF dogs compared to normal dogs. Long-term CCM therapy restored the expression of all measured proteins except PLB to near normal levels (Table 5). Possibly, phospholamban was not restored because of the differential phosphorylation thereof. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, this mechanism is used to selectively increase synthesis of some proteins over others.

(301) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, this mechanism is used to test if a patient is getting better—by stopping a therapy which is directly causing phospohorylation and seeing if phospholamban levels normalize (or trend to) after a few days and/or if other protein levels trend towards disease state values.

(302) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, relaxation time between signal application is an integral part of therapy. In one example, relaxation time is used to allow the cell to find a new balance between the expressed proteins that are not on corresponding levels, such a balance may include protein levels (or mRNA levels or phosphorylation or structural remodeling) degrading and/or protein levels improving. Such relation times may be on order of seconds, minutes hours or days, depending on which mechanism are to be allowed to take part (e.g., protein based, etc.).

(303) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, when applying phosphorylation-modifying therapy as described herein, a process of weaning is applied. Possibly, if treatment is stopped suddenly, phospholamban levels will be too low to support suitable cardiac activity, possibly causing a downwards-spiral in patient health. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, as protein levels normalize (for other proteins), therapy is reduced to allow phospholamban recovery. Optionally, the pauses are timed according to measured recovery in phospholamban levels.

(304) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, electrical therapy is applied selectively to tissue measured as having reduced phospholamban levels and/or phosphorylation levels, so as not to potentially damage healthy tissue. In some cases, changes to “healthy” tissue is desirable. For example, increasing phosphorylation and thus possibly reducing phospholamban may be desirable if long term reduction in contractility is desired. In another example, phosphorylation may be increased in normal tissue in order to cause over (or under) expression of some proteins, such as gap junction proteins or mechanical proteins. It should be appreciated that a therapy target of diseased tissue need not be a mirror of a healthy tissue state.

(305) TABLE-US-00061 TABLE 5 mRNA and Protein Expression of Fetal Program and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Genes/Proteins in Left Ventricular Free Wall of Normal Dogs (NL) (n = 6), Sham-Operated Untreated Heart Failure Dogs (Sham, n = 7) and CCM-Treated Heart Failure Dogs (CCM, n = 7) mRNA Expression (du) Protein Expression (du) NL Sham CCM NL Sham CCM B.sub.1-AR  22 ± 1  11 ± 1*  18 ± 1*† 102 ± 9  62 ± 10*  89 ± 7† A-MHC 212 ± 7 148 ± 10* 180 ± 5*† — — — ANP  18 ± 2  34 ± 2*  27 ± 1*†  88 ± 7 147 ± 23*  63 ± 6† BNP  23 ± 3 177 ± 4*  44 ± 5*†  65 ± 10  91 ± 4*  73 ± 3† SERCA-2a 236 ± 4 154 ± 4* 192 ± 3*†  88 ± 7  54 ± 4*  73 ± 8† PLB 232 ± 8 149 ± 8* 212 ± 7† 446 ± 19 277 ± 12* 299 ± 9* RyR  38 ± 2  22 ± 2*  36 ± 5† 126 ± 8  88 ± 5* 106 ± 9† CSQ 264 ± 5 275 ± 5 259 ± 14  43 ± 3  40 ± 1  44 ± 3 GAPDH 219 ± 6 223 ± 8 236 ± 4 — — — du = Densitometric units; AR = Adrenergic receptor; MHC = Myosin Heavy Chain; ANP = A-type natriuretic peptide; BNP = B-type natriuretic peptide; SERCA-2A = Cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase; PLB = Phospholamban; RyR = Ryanodine receptor; CSQ = Calsequestrin; GAPDH = Glyseraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. *= p < 0.05 vs. NL; †= p < 0.05 vs. Sham.
Local and Remote Effects

(306) The above results showed analysis of tissue samples at the treated site. FIG. 6 shows mRNA expression levels for Phospholamban, SERCA-2a and Ryanodine receptors, showing chronic improvement in septal tissue to which a field was applied chronically.

(307) Referring to the 14 dogs chronic study described above, the restoration to near normal levels of the fetal program and most SR proteins after 3 months of CCM therapy was the same in LV tissue obtained from the inter-ventricular septum, the site nearest to the CCM signal delivery leads, and the LV free wall, a site remote from the CCM leads. A typical example illustrating the changes in protein levels of CSQ, SERCA-2a, PLB and RyR between the two LV sites is shown in FIG. 10.

(308) FIG. 8 shows phosphorylation levels in chronically treated dogs, at the application location in the septum.

(309) In addition to examining protein expression of fetal program genes and SR proteins, protein levels of P-PLB at serine-16 and threonine-17 were also examined. Measurements were made in tissue obtained from both the inter-ventricular septum and the LV free wall. At both sites, protein levels of P-PLB at serine-16 and threonine-17 were significantly lower in sham-operated HF dogs compared to normal dogs and returned to near normal levels after 3 months of CCM therapy (FIG. 11, Table 6). In both the inter-ventricular septum and LV free wall, the ratio of P-PLB at serine-16 to total PLB and the ratio of P-PLB at threnonine-17 were also significantly lower in sham-operated HF dogs compared to normal dogs (Table 6). Long-term CCM therapy resulted in a significant increase of both ratios in both the interventricular Septum and the LV free wall (Table 6).

(310) TABLE-US-00062 TABLE 6 Protein Expression of Total Phospholamban and Phosphorylated Phospholamban at Serine-16 and Threonine-17 in the Inter-Ventricular Septum and Left Ventricle Free Wall of Normal Dogs (NL) (n = 6), Sham-Operated Untreated Heart Failure Dogs (Sham, n = 7) and CCM- Treated Heart Failure Dogs (CCM, n = 7)) Inter-Ventricular Septum LV Free Wall NL Sham CCM NL Sham CCM Total PLB (du)  445 ± 7  305 ± 23*  299 ± 16*  446 ± 19  305 ± 19*  299 ± 9* P-PLB Ser-16 (du)   85 ± 6   47 ± 5*   79 ± 6†  128 ± 11   50 ± 12*   87 ± 11*† P-PLB Thr-17 (du)  146 ± 6   62 ± 10*  129 ± 12†  137 ± 4   56 ± 7*  109 ± 18† P-PLB Ser-16/ 0.19 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.01* 0.27 ± 0.02† 0.29 ± 0.03 0.16 ± 0.03* 0.29 ± 0.04† Total PLB P-PLB Thr-17/ 0.33 ± 0.01 0.21 ± 0.04* 0.44 ± 0.05† 0.31 ± 0.02 0.19 ± 0.03* 0.36 ± 0.05† Total PLB PLB = phopholamban; P-PLB = phosphorylated phospholamban; Ser-16 = serine-16; Thr-17 = theonine-17. *= p < 0.05 vs. NL; †= p < 0.05 vs. Sham.

(311) FIGS. 7A and 7B shows mRNA expression at sites remote from the application of the signal, but still within the left ventricle, at a relatively short time of four hours apparently no significant effect (mRNA, protein and/or phosphorylation) is shown. This may indicate that the effect of the CCM signal is first local, for example on a molecular level and then propagates to remote location, for example by biochemical signaling or by a mechanical signaling indicated by the change in contraction behavior of the treated tissue and/or of the chamber as a whole. The following non-limiting mechanism is suggested: the electric field causes phosphorylation of phospholamban. This in turn increases the activity/affinity of SRECA-2a for calcium and immediately improves SR calcium cycling. GATA-4 and the sodium calcium exchanger may play an additive role in the improved function. As LV function begins to improve and the LV gets smaller, many of the molecular/biochemical maladaptations begin to correct, which adds to the long-term benefits. Improved SR cardiac cycling may be a goal of some therapies in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the invention.

(312) In open chest HF dogs, acute hemodynamic and local/remote effects were determined. Continuous delivery of CCM therapy over the course of 2 hours improved LV systolic function and associated hemodynamics. Compared to baseline before initiating CCM therapy, 2 hours of CCM therapy resulted in a significant increase of LV ejection fraction (31±2 vs. 26±1%, p<0.05), a reduction of MVO.sub.2 that did not reach statistical significance (180±34 vs. 257±41 mols/min) and a trend toward an increase in LV mechanical efficiency that also did not reach statistical significance (33±8 vs. 19±4%).

(313) LV tissue obtained near the site of CCM lead implants, was compared to LV tissue obtained from a site remote from the CCM leads. LV tissue samples obtained from the same sites from dogs with HF that were untreated and normal dogs were used for comparisons. Compared to untreated HF dogs, the ratio of P-PLB to total PLB increased significantly in CCM-treated HF dogs compared to untreated HF dogs in the LV anterior wall at the site of signal delivery (FIG. 12A), whereas it was essentially unchanged in the LV posterior wall remote from the site of CCM signal delivery (FIG. 12B).

(314) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the location to which electrification will be applied is selected based on a model of what areas will cause a biochemical or mechanical cascade in the heart and improve its function. Optionally, the size of areas is optimized to reduce power needs, while retain an expected time frame of treatment.

(315) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, an area to be treated is selected based on immediate response of tissue therein to electrical stimulation.

(316) One example of a mechanical cascade is a desired change in stretching of tissue which will, as that tissue improve, propagate. Another example of mechanical cascade is selecting sufficient and correct tissue in the ventricle such that immediate hemodynamic effects (e.g., improvement) are seen and sensed by the rest of the chamber.

(317) A possible mechanism of non-mechanical propagation (which may be utilized) is that healthy cells can help regulate ionic concentrations of neighboring cells via gap junctions between them. Alternatively or additionally, other communication may occur via the gap junctions.

(318) Another possible mechanism is that low level fields reach further and take longer to have an effect. This suggests that low-level fields in general may be used, with a rapidity of effect depending on the field strength and/or mechanical or other improvement of parts of the heart.

(319) In some embodiments of the invention, the efficacy of a treatment is measured by tracking remote effects alternatively or additionally, to tracking local effects. One or more of the following logics may be used: 1. There is more remote tissue to sample, with less danger of damage to heart. 2. The effect in remote tissue is more gradual and thus easier to track. 3. Acute effects may not occur (or be smaller) in remote tissue, thereby preventing the masking of longest term effects by acute effects. Optionally, for local or remote measurement, the measurement is made when no treatment is applied. An example of an acute effect which may mask a longer term effect is conduction velocity.

(320) A short tabular summary of the results of FIGS. 6-8 follows:

(321) Re FIG. 6

(322) TABLE-US-00063 Dog Numbers HF-Control HF + CCM 02-097 02-106 02-098 02-107 02-103 02-108 02-130 02-012 03-045 03-023 04-004 03-050 04-018 04-005

(323) TABLE-US-00064 mRNA Expression for SERCA-2a in Septum NL HF-Control HF + CCM 238 172 207 224 123 214 203 167 178 199 168 191 226 151 179 162 123 150 149 162 Mean 209 150 183 STD 27 21 23 SEM 11 8 9 ANOVA = 0.001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(324) TABLE-US-00065 mRNA Expression for PLB in Septum NL HF-Control HF + CCM 241 255 394 330 277 374 324 281 327 344 276 364 368 290 352 352 275 292 278 243 Mean 327 276 335 STD 45 11 52 SEM 18 4 20 ANOVA = 0.029 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(325) TABLE-US-00066 mRNA Expression for RYR in Septum NL HF-Control HF + CCM 272 287 267 371 225 277 289 229 300 294 262 319 321 232 323 294 234 252 238 248 307 244 284 35 23 31 14 9 12 ANOVA = 0.005 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(326) Re FIGS. 7A and 7B:

(327) TABLE-US-00067 mRNA Expression for ANP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 155 301 342 164 336 316 175 356 307 170 325 303 229 318 291 212 350 282 Mean 184 331 307 STD 29 20 21 SEM 12 8 9 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(328) TABLE-US-00068 mRNA Expression for SERCA-2a NL HF-Control HF + CCM 257 68 126 266 50 57 334 56 140 293 84 71 285 53 36 263 47 38 Mean 283 60 78 STD 29 14 45 SEM 12 6 18 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(329) TABLE-US-00069 mRNA Expression for VEGF NL HF-Control HF + CCM 14 4 8 16 5 6 13 5 7 19 14 11 24 8 13 22 9 4 Mean 18 8 8 STD 4 4 3 SEM 2 2 1 ANOVA = 0.001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(330) TABLE-US-00070 mRNA Expression for GATA-4 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 121 352 341 129 367 349 145 373 333 126 350 325 133 377 300 136 394 262 Mean 132 369 318 STD 8 16 32 SEM 3 7 13 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(331) TABLE-US-00071 mRNA Expression for BNP NL HF-Control HF + CCM 320 1721 1862 299 1629 2012 331 1690 1952 294 1725 2111 361 1662 1991 349 2016 1641 326 1741 1928 27 140 162 11 57 66 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(332) TABLE-US-00072 mRNA Expression for Phospholamban NL HF-Control HF + CCM 18 9 14 17 9 11 17 7 11 19 11 9 20 7 6 21 11 4 19 9 9 2 2 4 1 1 1 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(333) TABLE-US-00073 mRNA Expression for bFGF NL HF-Control HF + CCM 186 90 110 195 76 100 194 108 87 215 77 88 189 104 83 200 100 70 197 93 90 10 14 14 4 6 6 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(334) TABLE-US-00074 mRNA Expression for α-MHC NL HF-Control HF + CCM 457 242 222 609 228 218 448 176 208 545 188 221 642 313 181 557 220 156 543 228 201 78 49 27 32 20 11 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(335) Re FIG. 8:

(336) TABLE-US-00075 Dog Numbers HF-Control HF + CCM 02-097 02-106 02-098 02-107 02-103 02-108 02-130 02-012 03-045 03-023 04-004 03-050 04-018 04-005

(337) TABLE-US-00076 Phosphorylated PLB at Serine-16 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 143 86 99 109 95 106 153 63 68 161 25 97 102 15 105 100 24 31 43 106 Mean 128 50 87 STD 28 32 28 SEM 11 12 11 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(338) TABLE-US-00077 Phosphorylated PLB at Threonine-17 NL HF-Control HF + CCM 135 90 80 126 41 68 137 53 62 148 52 162 146 32 168 129 59 78 67 147 137 56 109 9 19 47 4 7 18 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. NL <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05
Additional Proteins

(339) Experimental results of the effect of CCM signals on other proteins is described below.

(340) Effect of CCM on Calcium Cycling in the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and/or S100A1 Protein.

(341) Overexpression of the calcium-binding protein S100A1 in failing rat cardiomyocytes normalizes sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium cycling by increasing calcium-uptake and reducing SR calcium-leak from ryanodine channels. Expression of S100A1 is significantly decreased in left ventricular (LV) myocardium of explanted failed human hearts.

(342) RNA was extracted and homogenate prepared from LV tissue obtained from 6 CCM-treated HF dogs, 6 untreated HF dogs and 6 normal (NL) dogs (these are the same dogs as above). S100A1 mRNA expression was measured using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and protein expression was measured using Western blotting. Bands obtained after gel electrophoresis were quantified in densitometric units (du).

(343) S100A1 mRNA and protein expression decreased significantly in untreated HF dogs compared to NL dogs. Chronic CCM therapy significantly increased mRNA and protein expression of S100A1. Restoration of expression of this calcium binding protein improves calcium cycling within the SR and may account, at least in part, for the observed improvement of LV function seen following chronic CCM therapy.

(344) TABLE-US-00078 mRNA and Protein Expression of S100A1 NL HF-Untreated HF + CCM S100A1 mRNA (du) 13.0 ± 0.7   1.5 ± 0.1*  8.6 ± 0.5*† S100A1 Protein (du)  215 ± 15     63 ± 6*  190 ± 8†  * = p < 0.05 vs. NL; † = p < 0.05 vs. HF-Untreated
Effect on Sorcin; Presenilin and Calstabin

(345) RNA was extracted and homogenate prepared from LV tissue obtained from 6 CCM-treated HF dogs, 6 untreated HF dogs and 6 normal (NL) dogs. These are the same dogs as in the previous section. Sorcin, Presenilin and Calstabin mRNA expression was measured using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and protein expression was measured using Western blotting. Bands obtained after gel electrophoresis were quantified in densitometric units (du).

(346) Sorcin mRNA and protein expression decreased significantly in untreated HF dogs compared to NL dogs. Chronic CCM therapy significantly increased mRNA and protein expression of Sorcin. Presenilin-2 increased in HF and decreased with CCM. Preseilin-1 was measured as an internal control and it did not change. This suggests that Presenilin-2 can be used as a target (e.g., treatment goal) for treating HF and as an indicator for diagnosis and modification of treatment.

(347) Restoration of expression of Sorcin may prevent or limit the RyR2 calcium leak and in doing so improve calcium cycling within the SR. Correction of this maladaptation by CCM therapy may account, at least in part, for the observed improvement of LV function. In particular, the combined correction of Sorcin and Presenilin, which interact to regulate cardiac ryanodine calcium release channels may act as a mediator of recovery of calcium overload in cardiomyocytes due to “RyR-2 calcium leak” in heart failure.

(348) It should be noted that Calstabin-2 decreased in heart failure but remained depressed even after 3 months of CCM therapy. This suggests that CCM does not act by merely resetting cellular function, however, as noted above, resetting may be part of the process. One possible explanation is that Castabin-2 does not rebound as it is tied to phospholamban levels. Another possible explanation is that Castabin-2 indicates a path for the progression of heart failure. Until the underlying cause is removed, it may remain depressed. Possibly, an improvement over significantly longer periods of time is to be expected. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, this is used to estimate the ability of a patient to stop therapy. For example, if Castabin-2 levels trend to or do normalize, this can indicate that the tissue state is not diseased or becoming healthier. Optionally, this allows tracking of tissue improvement even during ongoing electrical therapy. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, signal optimization techniques as described herein are used to find and then apply a signal specific (or more specific) to modifying Castabin-2.

(349) The results are shown in FIGS. 13-15 and in the tables below (in densitometric units).

(350) FIGS. 13A and 13B present mRNA (FIG. 13A) and protein blots (FIG. 13B) illustrating expression of Sorcin in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention.

(351) FIGS. 14A, 14B, 14C and 14D present mRNA (FIGS. 14A and 14C) and protein blots (FIGS. 14B and 14D) of the Presenilin-1 (FIGS. 14A and 14B) and Presenilin 2 (FIGS. 14C and 14D) in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention.

(352) FIGS. 15A and 15B present mRNA (FIG. 15A) and protein blots (FIG. 15B) illustrating expression of Calstabin in LV tissue of HF Dogs treated with CCM for 3 months according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention.

(353) TABLE-US-00079 Dog Numbers HF-Control HF + CCM 02-097 02-106 02-098 02-107 02-103 02-108 02-130 02-012 03-045 03-023 04-018 03-050

(354) TABLE-US-00080 mRNA Expression of Sorcin Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.52 0.19 0.37 0.41 0.21 0.37 0.55 0.25 0.30 0.53 0.19 0.29 0.53 0.18 0.39 0.59 0.15 0.37 Mean 0.52 0.20 0.35 STD 0.06 0.04 0.04 SEM 0.02 0.02 0.02 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. Normal <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(355) TABLE-US-00081 Protein Expression of Sorcin Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.75 0.30 0.396 0.65 0.26 0.456 0.69 0.28 0.426 0.75 0.30 0.412 0.73 0.25 0.426 0.68 0.23 0.486 Mean 0.71 0.27 0.43 STD 0.04 0.03 0.03 SEM 0.02 0.01 0.01 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. Normal <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(356) TABLE-US-00082 mRNA Expression of Presenilin-1 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.34 0.4 0.38 0.36 0.44 0.4 0.38 0.39 0.45 0.39 0.43 0.39 0.29 0.38 0.38 0.32 0.33 0.35 Mean 0.35 0.40 0.39 STD 0.04 0.04 0.03 SEM 0.02 0.02 0.01 ANOVA = 0.131 p vs. Normal NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(357) TABLE-US-00083 Protein Expression of Presenilin-1 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.19 0.13 0.09 0.21 0.14 0.15 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.09 0.18 0.11 0.13 0.11 Mean 0.12 0.15 0.14 STD 0.03 0.05 0.02 SEM 0.01 0.02 0.01 ANOVA = 0.338 p vs. Normal NS NS p vs. HF-Control NS

(358) TABLE-US-00084 mRNA Expression of Presenilin-2 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.28 0.63 0.34 0.32 0.61 0.31 0.29 0.59 0.29 0.35 0.49 0.42 0.2 0.56 0.35 0.31 0.62 0.38 Mean 0.29 0.58 0.35 STD 0.05 0.05 0.05 SEM 0.02 0.02 0.02 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. Normal <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(359) TABLE-US-00085 Protein Expression of Presenilin-2 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 0.201 0.52 0.25 0.159 0.48 0.29 0.198 0.55 0.21 0.285 0.62 0.19 0.248 0.49 0.26 0.196 0.61 0.11 0.21 0.55 0.22 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.03 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. Normal <0.05 NS p vs. HF-Control <0.05

(360) TABLE-US-00086 mRNA Expression of Calstabin-2 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 1667 847 1477 1488 1204 1355 1486 1389 906 1723 887 619 1778 1120 1497 1840 1343 1224 Mean 1,664 1,132 1,180 STD 148 227 350 SEM 61 93 143 ANOVA = 0.004 p vs. Normal <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS

(361) TABLE-US-00087 Protein Expression of Calstabin-2 Normal HF-Control HF + CCM 5871 3991 3679 5602 3643 3923 5029 3156 3560 5579 4645 4083 6726 4567 4600 5190 4995 4381 Mean 5,666 4,166 4,038 STD 602 693 402 SEM 246 283 164 ANOVA = 0.0001 p vs. Normal <0.05 <0.05 p vs. HF-Control NS Effect wash-out times

(362) FIGS. 9A and 9B are graphs showing the relationship between rise time and decay time of a contractility increase in dogs. Similar results were observed in humans, albeit with generally slower rise times and slower decay times.

(363) FIG. 9A, in which the scale is in seconds, shows a rise time of several tens of seconds at about time 270. Once the signal is stopped (upper graph shows the signal application times), the contractility increase decays. The blip at 600 is probably caused by an arrhythmia. The decay continues from 600 until 950. A second signal application is at about 950 with a change in signal application location at about time 1350, before the signal effect washed out. In FIG. 9B the signal is shown as an outline of a square pulse, with the signal stopped each time an arrhythmia is detected, shown as a short pause in the signal.

(364) Again, a rise time of several tens of seconds is found. A decay time of 230 seconds is shown for the first signal. A longer decay time of over 400 seconds is shown for a second signal. The second signal caused an increase in contractility at about 1050 seconds, due to change in the applied signals.

(365) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, it is noted that the acute and long term effects last at least a few seconds after treatment is stopped and have different wash-out times. Thus, measuring patient parameters is possible while the treatment apparatus is off. Different waiting times may be used to selectively measure acute and longer term effects. For example, 30 minutes may be sufficient for avoiding acute effects on phosphorylation.

(366) In an exemplary system, a controller learns the particular washout behavior of a patient and adjusts the treatment to be re-applied only after significant washout and/or be applied at a minimal length that has a washout. Optionally, the delay between application and/or length of applications are selected to optimize one or more of power consumption, danger of arrhythmia and/or discomfort to patient.

(367) WO 2005/087310, filed as PCT/IL2005/00316 on Mar. 18, 2005, U.S. provisional application 60/719,517, filed Sep. 22, 2005 and U.S. provisional application 60/654,056, filed February 17th, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference, describe methods and devices for treating metabolic diseases. In particular, 60/719,517 describes how applying a signal to a stomach has an effect on reducing blood glucose levels which lasts after the signal is stopped, for example, for more than one day. At least in combination with the results described above, this suggests that an electrical therapy may be used to change the mode of operation of tissue, on a cellular level, possibly for tissue in general or for excitable tissue at least.

(368) It is a particular feature of some embodiments of the invention that a non-immediate effect of signal application, which lasts after the signal application is stopped, is an affirmative effect, in which the tissue exhibits a positive change in action, rather than a negative effect, for example, of preventing arrhythmia. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the effect is on a cellular level, rather than or in addition to an effect on an organ level, for example a cellular level as measured by protein activity and/or expression levels.

(369) Another type of long term/wash-out effect is a long term therapeutic effect lasting days or weeks after treatment. Below are described two sets of experiments on humans. In the first set, patients were selectively treated 3 months on and 3 months off or vice versa. In the second set of experiments patients were either treated for six months or not. While the patients that were 3 months on and then 3 off fared less well (after 6 months) than those that were 3 off and then 3 on, the overall situation after 6 months was better than what would be expected from a baseline (no treatment) situation. The second set of experiments while suggesting no overall improvement after 6 months, shows a trend to lesser degradation and also suggests what the expected degradation would be. Optionally, the therapies as described herein are used to slow down degradation of a patient's situation, rather than a treatment. Optionally, each patient is selectively tested to see how long the treatment effects last and/or what minimal treatment period is required for longer term effects. Optionally, the length of treatment and/or “off” periods between treatments also vary as a function of time. Various physiological measures, for example as described above may be used to assess improvement, as well as mRNA, protein and/or phosphorylation levels.

(370) In the first set of experiments 126 subjects with ischemic (60%) or idiopathic (40%) cardiomyopathy, EF<35%, NYHA Class II (23%) or III (73%) received a CCM pulse generator. Patients were randomly assigned to Group 1 (n=62, CCM treatment 3 months, sham treatment second 3 months) or Group 2 (n=64, sham treatment 3 months, CCM treatment second 3 months). The coprimary endpoints were differences between groups of changes in peak oxygen consumption (VO.sub.2,peak) and Minnesota Living with Heart Failure Questionnaire (MLWHFQ).

(371) Baseline EF (25±6% vs 26±6%), VO.sub.2,peak (14.4±2.5 vs 14.2±2.7 ml/kg/min) and MLWHFQ (41±20 vs 35±19) were similar in both groups. VO.sub.2,peak increased similarly in both groups during the first 3 months (0.64±0.36 vs 0.53±0.46 ml O2/kg/min, p=NS, possibly a placebo effect). However, during the next 3 months, VO.sub.2,peak decreased in the group switched to sham treatment (−0.92±0.42 ml/kg/min) and continued increasing in patients switched to active treatment (0.35±0.35 ml/kg/min, p=0.02), so that the final difference between groups was 1.2 ml/kg/min. It is hypothesized that this reduction is less than what would be expected after 3 months of an untreated patient. MLWHFQ also improved in both groups during the first 3 months (placebo effect), though the improvement trended better with treatment (−14.65±2.04 vs −9.8±2.2, p=NS). During the second 3 months, MLWHFQ increased in the group switched to sham (5.1±2.3) and continued to decrease in patients switched to active treatment (−1±2, p=0.03). However, the increase in the untreated group appeared to be less than a return to baseline values or other values that would be expected with a diseased patient with natural progression.

(372) It should be noted that significant improvement is achieved even for patients that had an ON phase followed by an OFF phase, or at least the effects of treatment remained for a while. This suggests that the therapeutic effects are long lasting, for example, more than a week, more than a month, more than three months or longer. This is in contrast to cardiac resynchronization therapy where improvements seem to last a week or two at most. Even in this case, the heart desynchronization appears almost immediately (as is the case with electrical therapy in general which usually last a single beat).

(373) In a second set of experiments, 49 subjects with EF<35%, normal QRS duration (105±15 ms) and NYHA Class III (n=48) or IV (n=1) despite medical therapy received a CCM pulse generator. Devices were programmed randomly to deliver CCM signals (Treatment, n=25) or to remain off (Control, n=24) for 6 months. Evaluations included NYHA, 6 minute hall walk (6MW), cardiopulmonary stress test, Minnesota Living with Heart Failure Questionnaire (MLWHFQ) and Halter.

(374) Although most baseline features were balanced between groups, EF (31.4±7.4 vs 24.9±6.5%, p=0.003), end-diastolic dimension (52.1±21.4 vs 62.5±6.2 mm, p=0.01), peak VO.sub.2 (16.0±2.9 vs 14.3±2.8 ml O.sub.2/kg/min, p=0.02) and anaerobic threshold (12.3±2.5 vs 10.6±2.4 ml O.sub.2/kg/min, p=0.01) were worse in Treatment than Control. Nevertheless, there was 1 death in a Control subject and more Treatment patients were free of hospitalization for any cause at 6 months (84% vs 62%). No changes in ectopy were observed. Compared to baseline, 6MW (13.4 m), peak VO.sub.2 (0.2 ml O.sub.2/kg/min) and anaerobic threshold (0.8 ml O.sub.2/kg/min) increased more in Treatment than Controls. None of the differences were statistically significant (small sample size).

(375) Six minute hall walk showed similar improvements in both groups at 12 weeks (˜20 meters), with the curves diverging at 6 months with an approximately 15 meter greater increase in the treatment group. Peak VO.sub.2 decreased over time in both groups (˜−0.75 at 12 W, ˜−1 at 24 weeks), but remained higher in the treatment group than in controls, by ˜0.2 ml O.sub.2/kg/min. In contrast, anaerobic threshold, which decreased in the control group (˜−0.8 at 12 W, 24 W), decreased initially (˜−0.6 at 12 W) but then returned to baseline values at 6 months in the Treatment group. At the final follow-up, the difference between the two groups averaged 0.82 ml O.sub.2/kg/min. Ejection fraction increased minimally in both groups at 6 months (1.8±0.8 in the treatment group vs 1.3±1.6 in the control group).

(376) New York Heart Association classification improved similarly in both groups. For the treatment group, the proportion of patients in Class I, II and III at 24 weeks were 19, 45 and 36, respectively. This compared to 18, 52 and 30, respectively, in the Control group. MLWHFQ also improved significantly and similarly in both groups. At the 6 month follow-up, MLWHFQ decreased from baseline values by 16.2±5.9 and 18.3±4.8 in the control and treatment groups, respectively. The significant and sustained improvements in NYHA and MLWHFQ observed in both groups speaks to the presence of a significant placebo effect.

(377) Synergistic Interaction of Beta-Blockers and Electrical Therapy

(378) While it might be supposed that beta blockers and electrical therapy as described here utilize similar pathways and therefore cannot be additive, the following experiment shows that this is not correct. In addition, electrical therapy may be used to increase contractility and compensate for an initial reduction in contractility caused by beta blockers. This may suggest changing the sequence amount and/or type when the medication starts having a positive effect, for example, several weeks or several months (e.g., 3) later. Alternatively or additionally, electrical therapy is used to compensate for times when medication is stopped, for example, due to adverse systemic effects. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the dosage of medication and the dosage of therapy are selected to minimize or reduce systemic effects and/or reduce power needs and/or side effects (if any) of electrical therapy.

(379) In a set of experiments, dogs with intracoronary microembolization-induced chronic HF (LV EF 30%-40%) were randomized to 3 months therapy with either BB (beta-blockers) alone (extended release metoprolol succinate, 100 mg once daily), extended release metoprolol succinate (100 mg, once daily) combined with CCM therapy, or to no therapy at all (Control). LV end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV) and EF were measured before randomization (PRE) and after 3 months of therapy (POST). To determine “treatment effect”, the change A between PRE and POST therapy for each group was compared among the 3 study groups.

(380) In Control dogs, LV EDV and ESV increased significantly and EF decreased significantly. Therapy with BB alone and combined therapy with BB and CCM both prevented the increase in EDV, significantly reduced ESV and significantly increased EF. Treatment effect (Δ) comparisons showed that combination therapy with BB and CCM significantly increased LV EF above that seen with BB alone (12±1% vs. 6±1%, p<0.001).

(381) TABLE-US-00088 Control BB Alone BB + CCM PRE POST PRE POST PRE POST LV EDV (ml) 60 ± 1 64 ± 1* 64 ± 4 62 ± 5  70 ± 4 69 ± 4  LV ESV (ml) 39 ± 1 45 ± 1* 41 ± 2 36 ± 4* 45 ± 3 36 ± 3* LV EF (%) 36 ± 1 31 ± 1* 36 ± 1 42 ± 2* 36 ± 1 48 ± 1* *= p < 0.05 PRE vs. POST
Following are detailed results:

(382) TABLE-US-00089 CCM + Toprol-XL (n = 7) EDV (ml) ESV (ml) Dog# Base Pre Post Dog# Base Pre Post 04-112 61 78 77 04-112 29 50 41 04-120 51 69 67 04-120 25 44 35 04-124 56 72 74 04-124 24 47 40 04-145 52 60 59 04-145 22 37 29 05-025 51 56 55 05-025 24 36 31 05-033 51 66 65 05-033 23 41 33 05-034 56 64 62 05-034 30 41 32 Mean 54 66 66 Mean 25 42 34 STD 4 7 8 STD 3 5 5 SEM 1.4 2.8 3.0 SEM 1.1 1.9 1.7

(383) TABLE-US-00090 EF (%) Dog# Base Pre Post Delta 04-112 52 36 47 11 04-120 51 36 48 12 04-124 57 35 46 11 04-145 58 38 51 13 05-025 54 36 44 8 05-033 55 38 49 11 05-034 46 36 48 12 Mean 53 36 48 11 STD 4 1 2 2 SEM 1.5 0.4 0.8 0.6

(384) TABLE-US-00091 Topro-XL (n = 6) EDV (ml) ESV (ml) Dog# Base Pre Post Dog# Base Pre Post 03-057 54 62 59 03-057 27 38 33 03-066 58 74 76 03-066 26 48 47 04-147 51 57 55 04-147 19 38 33 05-006 55 64 59 05-006 30 39 32 05-028 54 60 60 05-028 30 37 35 05-042 54 59 59 05-042 25 37 31 Mean 54 63 61 Mean 26 40 35 STD 2 6 7 STD 4 4 6 SEM 0.9 2.5 3.0 SEM 1.7 1.7 2.4

(385) TABLE-US-00092 EF (%) Dog# Base Pre Post Delta 03-057 50 38 44 6 03-066 55 35 38 3 04-147 62 33 40 7 05-006 46 39 46 7 05-028 44 38 42 4 05-042 54 37 47 10 Mean 52 37 43 6 STD 7 2 3 2 SEM 2.7 0.9 1.4 1.0

(386) TABLE-US-00093 Placebo (n = 6) EDV (ml) ESV (ml) Dog# Base Pre Post Dog# Base Pre Post 03-031 51 59 63 03-031 24 39 46 03-065 54 61 68 03-065 23 39 48 04-103 52 58 61 04-103 21 37 43 04-122 48 63 64 04-122 23 39 43 05-002 54 61 64 05-002 28 39 43 05-027 59 60 64 05-027 28 39 44 Mean 53 60 64 Mean 25 39 45 STD 4 2 2 STD 3 1 2 SEM 1.5 0.7 0.9 SEM 1.2 0.3 0.8

(387) TABLE-US-00094 EF (%) Dog# Base Pre Post Delta 03-031 51 34 27 −7 03-065 48 36 29 −7 04-103 60 36 30 −6 04-122 52 38 33 −5 05-002 48 36 33 −3 05-027 53 35 31 −4 Mean 52 36 31 −5 STD 4 1 2 2 SEM 1.8 0.5 1.0 0.7
EDV=LV end-diastolic volume
ESV=LV end-systolic volume
EF=LV ejection fraction
Diagnosis

(388) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above experimental results are used as a basis for diagnosis. Optionally, the diagnosis indicates one or both of a disease type and disease severity. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the type can be seen from the behavior of the proteins, for example comparing protein levels to calcium overload to diagnose systolic or diastolic dysfunction. In another example, the relative phosphorylation levels are used as a measure of severity.

(389) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the use of multiple proteins and mRNA expression values provides a robust indicator of disease. In some embodiments, only one or two of proteins, phosphorylation and mRNA are used. Optionally, cardiac function values, such as stroke volume are used as well. Optionally, the response of tissue to a field is used as well, for example phosphorylation response.

(390) FIG. 16 is a schematic showing of a kit, in accordance with some embodiments of the invention. The kit can include a stimulator 1602 for applying electric fields via one or more electrodes 1604 to a sample chamber 1606 which can contain a sample extracted from a patient. The kit can include a plurality of indicators 1608 to assay the effect of the electric fields on the extracted sample.

(391) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, at least 3, at least 5, at least 10, at least or more proteins levels, phosphorylation levels and/or mRNA levels are used to aid in diagnosis. Optionally, a table is maintained which includes ranges of values that match various disease types and/or conditions. Optionally, as therapy progresses, the patient is re-diagnosed. Optionally, the diagnosis is according to groups of mRNA and/or proteins that have associated functions.

(392) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a DNA chip and/or protein chip and/or a biochip are used to measure the above levels.

(393) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, treatments are selected by applying the above pulses to tissue and measuring the effect. Optionally, a tissue sample is removed, for example by biopsy and a range of sequences are tested on the sample. Optionally, the results of the testing indicate which sequence might have a desired therapeutic effect. Such testing can include analysis and/or application of a treatment, such as an electric field. As noted above, at least some of the tests can be meaningfully applied to tissue homogenate and other unstructured tissue configurations.

(394) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, different parts of the tissue are tested, for example, to see which tissue part will respond better and/or avoid side effects.

(395) Kits

(396) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a kit is provided for performing such analyses as described herein. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the kit comprises a set of reagents, antibodies and/or other biochemical tools as known in the art. Alternatively or additionally, the kit comprises one or more mRNA or protein detecting chips. Alternatively or additionally, the kit comprises software for analyzing gel migration.

(397) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the kit comprises a source of treatment, for example electrodes and optionally a power source, for electrifying a sample for testing its responsiveness. Optionally, the kit includes a sampling means for selecting part of the sample at a pre-described time, to check temporal response of the sample. An existing kit may be modified for use, for example, a kit available from Biosite, Inc. to measure blood levels of BNP. Such a kit could include instructions for use with the methods described herein and optionally include sampling means or a timer to ensure correct timing of activities.

(398) The kit includes or is used with a bioreactor that includes a controllable sampling element which cans electively extract a portion of the sample in the bioreactor and test it in a separate chamber. Optionally, this is embodied using lab-on-chip technology and/or fluidic control of material flow. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the controllable sampling element comprises a robot and a pipette that takes part of the sample and inserts it into an assaying chamber. Various automated assaying devices are known in the art of drug discovery and may be used and/or modified to be smaller and/or simpler.

(399) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the kit includes a database or a link to a database (e.g., on the internet) that links biochemical markers to tissue states, treatment states and/or disease states.

(400) Optionally, the kits are sterile and/or frozen and optionally include instructions for use as described herein. Optionally, one or more kits are packaged with a controller designed for implantation, for use in determining suitable electrode placement therefore.

(401) Measuring Phosphorylation

(402) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the kit includes one or more antibody reagents useful for detecting phosphorylated and/or dephosphorylated forms of the proteins desired.

(403) Optionally, tracers which are anti-body based are used in-vivo, for example provided using a catheter or using the delivery electrodes or a separate needle or other injection mechanism. Optionally, the tracer is radioactive or fluorescent.

(404) A calibration step, for example, per patient, may be carried out. Alternatively or additionally, a comparison before and after field application is used to determine change in phosphorylation.

(405) Optionally, phosphorylation of proteins which affects ECG signals or correlated proteins which affect ECG signals is detected by detecting changes in ECG signals.

(406) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, changes in conduction velocity caused by increased secretion of protein are detected in an ECG measurement. Optionally, the measurement is remote from a signal application area.

(407) Alternatively or additionally to conduction velocity, changes in contraction velocity under various conditions are assed from images of the heart or using other means.

(408) Optionally, other physiological measures are correlated with protein effects (e.g., in a per-patient or per-population calibration process) and used to estimate effects on protein synthesis from physiological measures.

(409) Exemplary Cardiac Applications

(410) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequences are used to treat tissue plugs that are removed from the body, treated and reinserted. The reinsertion may be, for example, at the location of removal, at scarred locations, at locations bordering scars or at otherwise weakened location of the heart.

(411) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequences are used as part of a program to re-invigorate scar or fibrotic tissue. Optionally, the effect of the sequence is to cause at least some cells to become functioning, for example in the border of the scar.

(412) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequence is used to selectively increase oxygen efficiency in some parts of the heart, for example, parts with a vascular blockage thereto.

(413) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequences are applied to tissue transplants, for example, whole heart transplants or plug transplants (from a donor), prior to and/or after transplant.

(414) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequences are applied after DNA or stem cell therapy to the heart, for example, to enhance effects and/or to assist in cellular functional differentiation and/or regeneration.

(415) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the above sequences are used to have a desired modeling effect on the heart, for example, modifying an elasticity and/or contractility profile of a heart portion and/or directly controlling conduction velocity.

(416) Three types of remodeling may be provided, possible to different degrees at different parts of the heart. A first type of remodeling is on the biochemical level and includes, for example, normalization of protein synthesis. A second type of remodeling is mechanical remodeling, for example, fibrosis reduction, chamber size change, vascular increase and/or wall thickening. A third type of remodeling is function remodeling which may result form a combination of biochemical and structural remodeling. This includes, for example, cardiac electrical and/or mechanical activation profile (what gets activated, to what degree and in what order), contractility enhancement and conduction velocity. As described herein, these types of remodeling may be achieved using methods described herein. Differential remodeling of different types may be achieved, for example, by selectively applying signals with a strong acute effect (which affect mechanical remodeling) and those with a long term effect. For example, tissue which is both paced and treated with non-excitatory signals may thicken, as opposed to tissue which is only treated.

(417) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, multiple methods of improving contractility are applied at a same time, or methods of improving contractility applied at a same time as methods that reduce contractility such as the initial effect of beta-blockers.

(418) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, contractility enhancement by effects on membrane proteins is carried out at least partly independently from protein effects on SR proteins. Optionally, the selectivity is using methods as described above.

(419) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, such enhancement is provided without adversely affecting short term activity, as pacing or inhibition might. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the enhancement is local and has fewer systemic effects (as would be expected with ACE-inhibitors or beta-blockers, for example). In some embodiments, short term activity is improved.

(420) It should be noted that these proteins are also known in other body organs, such as smooth muscle cells and slow-twitch skeletal muscle cells. Thus, an electric field as described herein can be used, for example, to modify PLB phosphorylation in blood vessel cells and/or the GI tract. Optionally, elasticity compliance is restored and vasomotor tone is restored and/or responsiveness are restored to blood vessels and/or GI tract portions using the electric field as described herein. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a hardened aorta is made more supple (and thus relieve cardiac problems) by suitable treatment. Vascular resistance in general, may be modified. Optionally, signals as described herein are used to help increase muscle strength and/or normalize protein expression therein.

(421) It should be noted that in smooth muscle cells the depolarization cycle is much longer and there is no danger of fatal arrhythmia, so more varied pulses may be attempted without significant danger and may provide longer term effects.

(422) Pulse Optimization

(423) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a method of optimizing treatments to the tissue is provided, taking into account effects on protein levels. For example, a CCM signal or a pacing signal, exercise or a pharmaceutical treatment may each (or in combination) have an effect on protein expression and/or behavior. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, such a treatment is optimized so that it has a greater (desired) effect on proteins. In one example, a CCM signal is optimized by applying variations of the signals (e.g., different amplitude, frequencies pulse forms, etc.) to a set of tissue homogenate sets and selecting the signal(s) for which a better effect is achieved. It is noted that while this may be carried out in vivo, the ability to try out signals with various pulse parameters on tissue homogenate without the need for safety testing and worry about danger of damage to a patient/animal, can allow a much faster and/or cheaper search to be made. Searching methods as known in the art may be used. It is noted that such searching can also be carried out for small molecule drugs which have a direct effect on phosphorylation, for example.

(424) It is noted that immediate protein levels may be results that are faster to achieve or have less noise, than measuring actual improvement in a patient. Thus, protein measurement may allow faster within-patient optimization and/or allow optimization based on the response to a small number of beats (e.g., 100, 50, 10, 3 or intermediate or fewer numbers), rather than waiting for a longer term effect which may damage the heart if it is negative.

(425) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, an existing device is optimized by changing its applied sequence with a sequence selected to have a desired protein effect.

(426) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a device is programmed by a used selecting a desired pulse sequence form an existing set or by selecting parameters which are expected to have a desired protein effect.

(427) It should be noted that the applied pulse sequence (optionally including non-treated beats) and/or desired effect may change over the course of a treatment. One type of change is when the patient state stabilizes and/or the focus of maladaptation changes. In one example, a first step of treatment is in stabilizing heart treatment and a second step is in increasing contractility and/or remodeling the heart.

(428) Another type of change is where a different effect is desired at different times during a treatment, for example, a one series of beats being utilized to treat one protein and another series of beats to have another effect. It should be noted that not all treatments need to be synchronized the cardiac heart beat.

(429) Both types of change may be controlled using feedback. Optionally, the change includes one or both of changing the sequence and changing the tissue to which the sequence is applied, for example by switching and/or by moving electrode(s).

(430) In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, the applied sequence takes into account a provided pharmaceutical and/or a half-life in the body thereof. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a transmitter is provided to a patient to indicate to the controller that a medication was taken.

(431) Optionally, the medication (or another treatment) is provided to specifically interact with the sequence. For example, a signal or medicine is provided which has a long effect and while that effect is going on, a signal or other treatment is provided which has an opposite effect that momentarily counteracts long-term effects. In one example, a medication which extends a refractory period is provided together with an electrical treatment that applies a phosphorylation-modifying signal. In another example, medication is provided to enforce resting of the cells, using a mechanism which does not prevent the CCM or CCM-like signal from working, possibly, a medication that blocks trans-membrane channels.

(432) It should be appreciated that some sequences that are applied therapeutically may change between applications to a same patient, for example, vary in power, shape, repetition number, duration of application and location. As noted above, such variations may be during a treatment process of a particular complaint or set of complaints.

(433) General

(434) The following papers, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference present various results of the effect of a CCM (Cardiac Contractility Modulation) signal, on gene expression and protein phosphorylation:

(435) a) an abstract, Control/Tracking Number: 05-A-314176-ACC “Chronic Therapy With Non-Excitatory Cardiac Contractility Modulation Electric Signals Improves Left Ventricular Function, Reduces Myocardial Oxygen Consumption and Increases Myocardial Mechanical Efficiency”, by Hani N. Sabbah, Makoto Imai, Sharad Rastogi, Naveen Sharma, Margaret P. Chandler, Walid Haddad, Yuval Mika, William C. Stanley, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Mich., Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; In American College of cardiology foundation.

(436) b) “Non-Excitatory Cardiac Contractility Modulation Electric Signals Normalize Phosphorylation and Expression of the Sodium Calcium Exchanger in Left Ventricular Myocardium of Dogs with Heart Failure”, by Ramesh C. Gupta, Sudhish Mishra, Sharad Rastogi, Makato Imai, Walid Hadad, Yuval MiKa, Hani N. Sabbah, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Mich., Impulse Dynamics, Mount Laurel, N.J.; In Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2005; 45:151A.

(437) c) “Short-Term Therapy with Non-Excitatory Cardiac Contractility Modulation Electric Signals Increases Phosphorylation of Phospholamban in Left Ventricular Myocardium of Dogs With Chronic Heart Failure”, by Sudhish Mishra, Ramesh C. Gupta, Sharad Rastogi, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Mich.; Walid Haddad, Yuval Mika, Impulse Dynamics USA, Mount Laurel, N.J.; Hani N. Sabbah, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Mich.; In Circulation vol. 110; page 111604, 2004.

(438) While the above described apparatus has focused on hardware and/or methods, it should be understood that the present invention includes programmable hardware, software for programmable devices, software for programming such hardware and computers including software for programming devices. For example, an external programming station may be provided, which optionally communicates with an implantable device using telemetry. Data collection using telemetry may also be practiced. In addition, computer readable media including such programs are also included. Also included are micro-code and other types of programming, as well as hardwired circuitry and ASICs. This is a list of examples and should not be considered as limiting. An exemplary device/software includes a decision making module, a timing module, a power module and/or a signal analysis modules. Section headings are provided for navigation and should not be considered as limiting their contents to that section only.

(439) It should be understood that features and/or steps described with respect to one embodiment may be used with other embodiments and that not all embodiments of the invention have all of the features and/or steps shown in a particular figure or described with respect to one of the embodiments. Variations of embodiments described will occur to persons of the art. Furthermore, the terms “comprise,” “include,” “have” and their conjugates, shall mean, when used in the claims, “including but not necessarily limited to.” When the term “based on” is used in the claims it is to be interpreted as meaning “at least partially based on”.

(440) It is noted that some of the above described embodiments may describe the best mode contemplated by the inventors and therefore may include structure, acts or details of structures and acts that may not be essential to the invention and which are described as examples. Structure and acts described herein are replaceable by equivalents which perform the same function, even if the structure or acts are different, as known in the art. Therefore, the scope of the invention is limited only by the elements and limitations as used in the claims, as issued.

(441) It is the intent of the Applicant(s) that all publications, patents and patent applications referred to in this specification are to be incorporated in their entirety by reference into the specification, as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually noted when referenced that it is to be incorporated herein by reference. In addition, citation or identification of any reference in this application shall not be construed as an admission that such reference is available as prior art to the present invention. To the extent that section headings are used, they should not be construed as necessarily limiting. In addition, any priority document(s) of this application is/are hereby incorporated herein by reference in its/their entirety.