Methods of separating and isolating water and other desired constituents from oilfield produced brines

Abstract

An integrated, membrane-based process to produce purified water and conversion of salt to high value chemicals from oil and gas well produced water is described. A liquid stream including water and dissolved salt is flowed through pretreatment units and one or more desalination and concentration units which remove at least a portion of the water to form a brine enriched in dissolved salt. The purified high-density brine may be subjected to electrically-enforced salt dissociation techniques to produce chemicals from oil and gas produced water.

Claims

1. A method of processing produced water, the method comprising: deoiling the produced water to provide a deoiled feed stream; introducing an oxidant to the deoiled feed stream to provide an oxidized feed stream; transferring the oxidized feed stream to a partially complete precipitation and to a substantially complete precipitation; where the substantially complete precipitation precipitates the oxidized feed stream to provide a precipitated slurry, and the partially complete precipitation precipitates the oxidized feed stream to remove from 10% to 95% by weight of total hardness in the oxidized feed stream to provide a less-concentrated precipitated slurry; passing the precipitated slurry from the complete precipitation through a first tubular membrane filter unit to produce a permeate; passing the less-concentrated precipitated slurry from the partially completed precipitation through a second tubular membrane filter unit to produce a hydraulic fracturing brine; reducing the pH of the permeate to provide a reduced pH permeate; passing the reduced pH permeate through a first nanofiltration membrane unit to produce a NF permeate and a NF reject; passing the NF permeate to an electrolysis cell, where the electrolysis cell provides the oxidant.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the deoiling includes recovering a hydrocarbon fraction from the produced water.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrolysis cell is undivided.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrolysis cell is divided.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the substantially complete precipitation and the partially complete precipitation include adding lime and sodium hydroxide to the oxidized feed stream.

6. The method of claim 1, further comprising stoichiometrically overdosing the precipitated slurry with a precipitation agent selected from lime, soda ash, caustic soda, and combinations thereof.

7. The method of claim 1, where the first tubular membrane filter unit and the second tubular membrane filter unit comprise a semipermeable tubular membrane having a pore size of less than 1 micron.

8. The method of claim 7, further comprising cleaning the semipermeable tubular membranes with a cleaning solution selected from hydrochloric acid, sodium hypochlorite, and combinations thereof.

9. The method of claim 1, further comprising removing and dewatering solids from the second tubular membrane filter unit.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the reducing the pH of the permeate includes contacting the permeate with hydrochloric acid.

11. The method of claim 1, further comprising dechlorinating the precipitated slurry or the reduced pH permeate.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the dechlorinating includes contacting the precipitated slurry or the reduced pH permeate with carbon.

13. The method of claim 1, further comprising returning the NF reject to the substantially complete precipitation.

14. The method of claim 1, further comprising using at least a portion of the hydraulic fracturing brine for hydraulic fracturing.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxidant includes sodium hypochlorite.

16. The method of claim 1, further comprising removing barium from the produced water.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanofiltration membrane unit includes a nanofiltration membrane having a molecular cut-off of about 300 g/mol.

18. The method of claim 1, further comprising: transferring the NF permeate to a first electrodialysis device including univalent anion and univalent cation membranes and electrodes to produce a first diluate depleted in sodium chloride and a first sodium chloride concentrate; passing the first diluate to the electrolysis cell; passing at least a portion of the first sodium chloride concentrate to a bipolar membrane electrodialysis unit; and generating a hydrochloric acid stream and a sodium hydroxide stream from the bipolar membrane electrodialysis unit.

19. The method of claim 1, further comprising: passing a portion of the hydraulic fracturing brine through a second nanofiltration membrane to produce a second NF permeate and a second NF reject; transferring the second NF reject to the partially complete precipitation; and transferring the second NF permeate to a second electrodialysis device including univalent anion and univalent cation membranes and electrodes to produce a second diluate depleted in sodium chloride and a second sodium chloride concentrate.

20. The method of claim 19, further comprising transferring the second diluate to a seawater reverse osmosis membrane to provide freshwater.

21. A method of processing produced water, the method comprising: deoiling the produced water to provide a deoiled feed stream; introducing an electrolysis cell-provided oxidant to the deoiled feed stream to provide an oxidized feed stream; precipitating the oxidized feed stream to provide a precipitated slurry; passing the precipitated slurry through a tubular membrane filter unit to produce a permeate; reducing the pH of the permeate to provide a reduced pH permeate; passing the reduced pH permeate through a nanofiltration membrane unit to produce a NF permeate and a NF reject; passing the NF permeate to said electrolysis cell, to a freshwater and concentrated sodium chloride retentate-providing seawater reverse osmosis membrane, or to both the electrolysis cell and the seawater reverse osmosis membrane; passing the concentrated sodium chloride retentate to an electrodialysis device including univalent anion and univalent cation membranes and electrodes to produce a diluate depleted in sodium chloride and a sodium chloride concentrate; passing the diluate to the nanofiltration membrane unit; and passing at least a portion of the sodium chloride concentrate to the electrolysis cell.

22. The method of claim 21, further comprising after passing at least a portion of the sodium chloride concentrate to the electrolysis cell, generating a sodium hypochlorite solution.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein the sodium hypochlorite solution is the electrolysis cell-provided oxidant.

24. The method of claim 21, wherein the deoiling includes recovering a hydrocarbon fraction from the produced water.

25. The method of claim 21, wherein the electrolysis cell is undivided.

26. The method of claim 21, wherein the precipitating includes adding lime and sodium hydroxide to the oxidized feed stream.

27. The method of claim 21, further comprising stoichiometrically overdosing the precipitated slurry with a precipitation agent selected from lime, soda ash, caustic soda, and combinations thereof.

28. The method of claim 21, wherein the tubular membrane filter unit comprises a semipermeable tubular membrane having a pore size of less than 1 micron.

29. The method of claim 28, further comprising cleaning the semipermeable tubular membrane with a cleaning solution selected from hydrochloric acid, sodium hypochlorite, and combinations thereof.

30. The method of claim 21, further comprising removing and dewatering solids from the tubular membrane filter unit.

31. The method of claim 21, further comprising dechlorinating the precipitated slurry or the reduced pH permeate.

32. The method of claim 31, wherein the dechlorinating includes contacting the precipitated slurry or the reduced pH permeate with carbon.

33. The method of claim 21, further comprising returning the NF reject to the precipitating step.

34. The method of claim 21, where the seawater reverse osmosis membrane further provides low salt water to a brackish water reverse osmosis membrane.

35. The method of claim 21, further comprising using at least a portion of the sodium chloride concentrate for hydraulic fracturing.

36. The method of claim 21, wherein the oxidant includes sodium hypochlorite.

37. The method of claim 21, further comprising removing barium from the produced water.

38. The method of claim 21, where the nanofiltration membrane unit includes a nanofiltration membrane having a molecular cut-off of about 300 g/mol.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

(1) The invention can be better understood with reference to the following drawings and description. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.

(2) FIG. 1 represents a system for treating produced water having a low (<40 g/L) concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS).

(3) FIG. 2 represents a system for treating produced water having a high (≤40 g/L) concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS).

(4) FIG. 3 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during production at the DJ Basin.

(5) FIG. 4 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during flowback (60-90 days after hydraulic fracturing) at the DJ Basin.

(6) FIG. 5 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during production at the DJ Basin.

(7) FIG. 6 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during production at the Permian Basin.

(8) FIG. 7 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during production at the Ardmore Basin.

(9) FIG. 8 provides the initial TDS and contaminant content, intermediate treatment content, and percent TDS removal from produced water obtained during production at the Williston Basin.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(10) Systems and methods are described that remove at least a portion of contaminants such as oil, suspended solids, scale-forming ions, and volatile organic material from produced water to provide a partially treated brine stream for reuse in oil and/or gas extraction processes. A portion of the partially treated brine stream may undergo desalination to produce fresh water and concentrated brine. The systems and methods may be configured to produce a sterile, substantially particle free brine; a concentrated heavy brine; in some embodiments an ultra-high purity brine; an oxidizing biocide; HCl; NaOH; and fresh water. The chemicals produced may be used in hydraulic fracturing, stimulation in oil and gas extraction, or other industrial applications. When desalination is used, the fresh water produced may be used for irrigation, industrial use, and/or other applications.

(11) FIG. 1 represents a system 5 for treating produced water having a low (<40 g/L) concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS). The produced water from the well enters deoiling 10 to produce recovered oil 15 and a deoiled feed stream. The deoiling function is provided by gravity separation methods as known in oil and gas industry, or through other methods known in the art. Produced water may enter the deoiling 10 from a two or three phase separator, a free water knockout, a gun barrel, a heater treater, hydro-cyclone, or other primary separation unit process for hydrocarbon removal.

(12) The deoiled feed stream is then passed to oxidation 20 where an oxidant is introduced to the deoiled feed stream. The oxidant is in the form of a mixed oxidant generated from undivided or divided electrolysis cell 90. Undivided electrolysis cells produce an oxidant strength of 0.01-0.25% as Cl.sub.2 by weight, while membrane divided electrolysis cells produce Cl.sub.2 at 5-12% by weight concentration—thus at least three orders of magnitude higher. Undivided electrolysis cells are generally fed seawater strength brine while membrane divided cells are generally fed a near saturation strength brine.

(13) Purified, halogen-containing brine generated by the system 5 is fed to the electrolysis cell 90 for enhanced oxidation or reduction. In the event of an undivided electrolysis cell 90, the seawater strength brine is obtained from the NF 60, as discussed further below. In the event of a divided electrolysis cell 90, the near saturation brine is obtained from the ED 80, as discussed further below.

(14) The enhanced oxidation or reduction provided by the electrolysis cell 90 destructs contaminants in either brine and generates a liquid with a significantly enhanced oxidation potential. The enhanced oxidation potential liquid serves as an oxidant in the oxidation 20 and as an oxidizing biocide. In addition to producing sodium hypochlorite for direct use as an oxidizing biocide, the produced sodium hypochlorite may be combined with the produced HCl to generate a first reaction product and then introducing sodium chlorite from an outside source to form a product stream comprising chlorine dioxide (ClO.sub.2) and free available chlorine.

(15) There are two basic types of electrolysis (electrolytic) cells, namely divided cells and undivided cells. In both cell types, certain ions may travel between the electrodes. In a divided cell, the cathode and anode sides of the cell are separated (divided) in some manner such that most or all of the reactants and products on each side of the cell are kept separate. In the undivided cells, the cathode and anode sides of the cell are not separated (undivided) and the reactants and products on each side of the cell can mix. Suitable electrolysis cells are sold, for example, by De Nora, Japan, as electrochlorination systems.

(16) After the oxidation 20, the resulting oxidized feed stream is introduced to precipitation 30 to soften the oxidized feed stream. A modified lime-soda precipitation may be used to soften the oxidized feed stream. The modified lime-soda precipitation process may be preferred as conventional lime methods often require large amounts of lime and conventional caustic soda softening cannot remove as many contaminants as lime. Thus, the modified process includes lime, but also introduces caustic (NaOH) from the EDBM unit 100. Depending on the produced water, conventional softening agents including lime-softening, lime-soda ash softening, and caustic softening may be used. The precipitation 30 preferably includes the use of mechanical agitators to disperse the reagents more effectively into the oxidized feed stream and to maintain precipitated solids in suspension to enhance agglomeration of small precipitates into larger precipitates.

(17) After the precipitation 30, the resulting concentrated sodium chloride containing ultra-high purity brine slurry is introduced to tubular membrane filter unit (TMF) 40, where the concentrated slurry is preferably overdosed from a stoichiometric perspective with additional precipitating agent, such as lime, soda ash, and/or caustic soda (NaOH), to enhance precipitation. Stoichiometric overdosing is preferred because chemical equilibriums require more than the stoichiometric quantity of the reagents to drive the precipitation reaction near completion. Barium removal by sulfate precipitation also may be performed in precipitation 30 and/or TMF 40.

(18) The TMF 40 uses a semipermeable tubular membrane including sub-micron filtration media—thus a filtration membrane having a pore size of less than 1 micron. The permeate from the concentrated slurry of the precipitation 30 is received into the tubes of the tubular membrane from the outside of the tubular membrane and includes less dissolved solids than would be predicted by the solubility limits of the dissolved solids.

(19) The semipermeable tubular membrane of the TMF 40 is preferably a polymeric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or polyethylene (PE) membrane having an absolute pore size of 0.05 to 0.1 microns. Such tubular PVDF membranes are available from Porex Filtration, Fairburn, Ga., for example. While less preferred, a ceramic membrane of similar pore size range may be used in the TMF 40.

(20) The semipermeable tubular membrane may be cleaned of surface precipitates with the dilute HCl solution produced by EDBM 100. The dilute HCl solution may be circulated through the TMF 40 membrane until the precipitate is dissolved to an acceptable level. In the event the TMF 40 membrane fouls with organic compounds, the membrane may be cleaned by circulating the sodium hypochlorite solution generated in the electrolysis cell 90 through the membrane until acceptable flow through the membrane is restored.

(21) When the TMF 40 has concentrated the solids to an acceptable level from the concentrated slurry, the solids are transferred to dewatering 42. The solids include residue created from the precipitation 30 and may be very high in calcium carbonate or a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. The dewatering 42 is preferably performed with a filter press. However, lagooning, vacuum filtration, or centrifugation also may be used.

(22) The permeate from the TMF 40 is sterile and substantially particle free and will generally have a pH greater than 10, which needs to be reduced. Preferably, the HCl generated from EDBM 100 may be used to reduce the pH of the permeate. Less preferably, carbon dioxide or a mineral acid may be used.

(23) In combination the precipitation 30 and the TMF 40 can remove a broad range of dissolved contaminants to acceptable levels. The removed contaminants include Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Al, Si, total organic carbon (TOC), oil, grease, and suspended solids.

(24) Once the pH of the TMF 40 permeate is reduced, the reduced pH permeate is transferred to adsorption 50. The adsorption 50 dechlorinates the permeate to prevent oxidation of the later NF 60 and SWRO 70 membranes. The adsorption 50 preferably includes granular carbon to dechlorinate the permeate. Alternatively, powdered activated carbon may be added to the concentrated lime slurry before transferring to the TMF 40. Alternatives to the granular carbon include chemical reducing agents, such as sodium metabisulfite and ascorbic acid. More preferably, a combination of granular carbon and a chemical reducing agent is used in the adsorption 50.

(25) The dechlorinated permeate from 50 is then transferred to a nanofiltration membrane unit (NF) 60. The NF 60 is used under pressure to selectively change the concentration of one solute, such as sodium chloride having monovalent ions, from another solute, such as sodium sulfate having multivalent ions. The NF 60 allows for the substantial removal of sulfate, phosphate, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and silica monovalent and divalent ions from the dechlorinated permeate.

(26) The NF 60 membrane is structurally similar to a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane, however, unlike RO membranes, the NF 60 membrane is characterized by a larger pore size in the “skin layer” and a net negative electrical charge inside the individual pores of the NF membrane. This negative charge is responsible for rejection of anionic species, according to the anion surface charge density. Accordingly, divalent anions, such as sulfate (SO.sub.4), are more strongly rejected than monovalent anions, such as Cl−. NF membranes are available from Dow as part of the FILMTEC™ NF90 and NF270 series, for example.

(27) The nanofiltration performed by the NF 60 membrane is characterized by a fractionation capacity for organic solutes with a molecular “cut-off” range of about 300 g/mol; and a fractionation capacity for multivalent vs. monovalent ions, which is especially pronounced for anions. The sulfate containing concentrate (reject or retentate from the NF 60) is returned to the precipitation 30 to enrich/enhance (calcium and barium sulfate) precipitant growth.

(28) The permeate from the NF 60 is then transferred to the electrolysis cell 90 if an undivided cell, or to SWRO 70 where sodium chloride and purified water are recovered. The SWRO 70 is a conventional seawater reverse osmosis (RO) membrane. Such SWRO membranes are available from DOW as part of the FILMTEC™ SW30 series, for example.

(29) SWRO is generally accepted as the most economical and energy-efficient method for desalination of highly saline water. Modern SWRO membranes have high salt rejection and are capable of producing potable water, <500 ppm salinity, from seawater (nominally 35 g/L) in a single pass through the membrane. Modern SWRO systems are capable of achieving up to 50% recovery of fresh water from seawater. With 50% recovery, the salinity of the concentrated brine (reject/retentate) increases to about 70 g/L.

(30) A first portion of the permeate lacking concentrated sodium chloride from the SWRO 70 is passed to brackish water RO membrane (BWRO) 71. The BWRO further reduces salinity for use in EDBM 100 or for cooling water makeup. Such BWRO membranes are available from DOW as part of the FILMTEC™ LE and BW30 series, for example. A second portion of the permeate lacking concentrated sodium chloride from the SWRO 70 is considered fresh water.

(31) The reject/retentate including concentrated sodium chloride from the SWRO 70 is passed to an electrodialysis device (ED) 80 that includes univalent anion and univalent cation selective membranes. The ED 80 includes a pair of electrodes (anode and cathode) and has a plurality of membranes, with at least one electrodialysis membrane being a univalent anion-selective membrane and another electrodialysis membrane being a univalent cation-selective membrane. The plurality of alternating anion-permeable and cation-permeable membranes are disposed between the anode and the cathode to form a series of alternating dilute and concentrate channels between the alternating membranes. The anion-permeable membranes allow the passage of anions through the membrane, while the cation-permeable membranes allow the passage of cations through the membrane. In combination, these membranes separate the reject/retentate into a diluate that is depleted in sodium chloride and a concentrate that is concentrated in sodium chloride. The concentrate may be considered a “heavy brine” having a from 1.1 to 1.2 kg/L salt concentration. Suitable ED's sold under the Acilyzer ED name may be obtained from Astom, Japan, for example.

(32) The diluate from the ED 80 is recycled to the NF 60 and at least a first portion of the ED concentrate is transferred to the electrolysis cell 90 in the event the electrolysis cell 90 is divided, while a second portion of the ED concentrate is transferred to the EDBM 100. The bipolar membrane electrodialysis unit (EDBM) 100 converts the sodium chloride into a dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and a dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution. Preferably, the second portion of the ED concentrate transferred to the EDBM 100 has a sodium chloride concentration in excess of 17% by weight.

(33) The EDBM 100 produces an acidic HCl stream and a basic NaOH stream. In the EDBM 100, the salt, acid, and base streams are distributed between membranes that are stacked up in repeating sequences called repeat units. Anions are transported across the anion permeable membrane; cations are transported across the cation permeable membrane; and the production of protons and hydroxide ions occurs in the bipolar membrane. The produced hydroxide ions and protons move towards the (positive) anode and the (negative) cathode, respectively, by means of migration in an electrical field. Ideally, they are trapped in the compartments adjacent to the two sides of the bipolar membrane in the respective base and acid compartment which results in the concentration of the base and acid in the respective base and acid compartments. The concentrated acid, the concentrated base, and the resulting reduced salt solution are collected and leave the EDBM 100. Suitable EDBM's sold under the Acilyzer BPED name may be obtained from Astom, Japan, for example.

(34) The pre-concentration of the salt by the ED 80 and the SWRO 70/BWRO 71 allow the EDBM 100 to operate at sufficiently high current density to convert a significant portion of the salt to acid and base and efficiently use the electricity consumed. The return of the depleted brine from the EDBM 100 to the ED 80 for concentration is also of benefit in this regard as the depleted brine is not “waste”, but can be re-concentrated to the elevated salt level required for higher current density in further EDBM 100 processing.

(35) Unlike membranes used for separation purposes, such as the previously described ED 80, species should not be transported from one side to the other of the EDBM 100 membranes. The desired function of the EDBM 100 membranes is a reaction in the bipolar junction of the membrane where the anion and the cation permeable layers are in direct contact. A disproportionation reaction splits water into hydroxide ions and protons. The produced hydroxide ions and protons are separated by migration in the respective membrane layer out of the membrane. Unlike water splitting at electrodes during electrolysis, no gases are formed as a side product of the disproportionation reaction, nor are gases consumed.

(36) The NaOH base stream leaving the EDBM 100 may undergo evaporation 110 to increase the NaOH concentration and provide a dilute NaOH/water solution back to the base loop of the EDBM 100 and a finished caustic product. Preferably the evaporation 110 increases the 3% to 4% by weight NaOH base stream leaving the EDBM 100 to from 25% to 50% by weight to form the finished caustic product.

(37) Similarly, the HCl acid stream leaving the EDBM 100 may undergo distillation 120 to increase the HCl concentration and provide a dilute HCl/water solution back to the acid loop of the EDBM 100 and a finished acid product. Preferably the distillation 120 increases the 4% to 8% by weight HCl acid stream leaving the EDBM 100 to from 15% to 20% by weight to form the finished acid product.

(38) The system 5 of FIG. 1 may be used to treat the produced water represented in FIG. 3, FIG. 4, and FIG. 5 as the system 5 is optimized to operate up to 40,000 TDS (40 g/L).

(39) FIG. 2 represents a system for treating produced water having a high (≥50 g/L) concentration to total dissolved solids (TDS). To process the much higher TDS concentration in relation to system 5 of FIG. 1, the system represented in FIG. 2 adds additional precipitation, TMF, NF, and ED units. Thus, the initial processing system 6 may include an optional fresh water production system 7, and/or an optional chemical production system 8.

(40) For the initial processing system 6, the produced water enters the deoiling 10 and is then transferred to the oxidation 20 as previously described in the context of FIG. 1. However, unlike the single precipitation 30 of FIG. 1, the precipitation function is performed in parallel by the precipitation 30, where substantially complete precipitation is still performed as previously described in the context of FIG. 1, and by the addition of partially complete precipitation 31.

(41) The substantially complete precipitation 30 of FIG. 2 functions as with the prior precipitation 30 and removes substantially all hardness from the water. Thus, the substantially complete precipitation 30 provides the concentrated sodium chloride containing ultra-high purity brine slurry suitable for the electrolysis cell 90, as previously discussed in the context of FIG. 1. In contrast, the partially complete precipitation 31 is operated to remove from 10% to 95% of the total hardness by weight in the water so the output is a less-concentrated sodium chloride containing brine slurry suitable for additional processing and reuse in hydraulic fracturing, or may be further desalinized in the water production system 7. In relation to the substantially complete precipitation 30, the partially complete precipitation 31 uses less softening agent to target the 10% to 95% hardness removal as opposed to the 100% target removal used for the substantially complete precipitation 30. Thus, in the partially complete precipitation 31, stoichiometric overdosing with the softening agent is not used as less than a 100% precipitation target is desired.

(42) The initial processing system 6, adds a second TMF 41 to process the less-concentrated precipitated slurry operating in combination with the TMF 40 as previously described in the context of FIG. 1. The second TMF 41 produces a permeate which is suitable for reuse as a hydraulic fracturing brine and solids that may be transferred for the dewatering 42 as previously described in the context of FIG. 1. Carbon dioxide may be added from an external source to the hydraulic fracturing brine produced by the second TMF 41. The parallel precipitations 30/31 allow for the two TMF 40/41, and thus a near doubling in capacity in relation to the system 5 of FIG. 1.

(43) Unlike with the system 5 of FIG. 1, the higher TDS produced water does not allow direct connection of a NF unit to a SWRO unit as was possible for the system 5. Instead, regarding FIG. 2, the first NF 60 and a second NF 61 transfer to first ED 80 and second ED 81, respectively. This is done because ED units can make a brine of considerably higher concentration (200 g/L or greater) than can be recovered from SWRO.

(44) The first ED 80 produces a first diluate depleted in sodium chloride and a first sodium chloride concentrate. The first diluate is returned to the electrolysis cell 90. The first sodium chloride concentrate may be passed to the electrolysis cell 90 or to the EDBM 100 as previously described in the context of FIG. 1. The EDBM 100 can form acid and base streams which may be used in the system 6 as previously described or converted to finished acid and base products.

(45) The second ED 81 produces a second diluate depleted in sodium chloride and a second sodium chloride concentrate. The second diluate is a partially desalted brine that may be directly used or passed to the SWRO 70 as previously described in the context of FIG. 1 to produce fresh water. The reject from the SWRO 70 may be returned to the ED 81 for continued concentrations.

(46) The system 6 of FIG. 2 may be used to treat the produced water represented in FIG. 6, FIG. 7, and FIG. 8 as the system 6 is optimized to operate at and above 40,000 TDS (40 g/L).

(47) Unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, where a range of values is provided, each intervening value to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit between the lower limit and the upper limit of the range is included in the range of values.

(48) While various aspects of the invention are described, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that other embodiments and implementations are possible within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not to be restricted except in light of the attached claims and their equivalents.