RADIONUCLIDE BRACHYTHERAPY SOURCE SYSTEMS FOR APPLICATION OF BETA RADIATION

Abstract

Radionuclide brachytherapy sources and systems for applying beta radiation to a target area, for example for maintaining functioning drainage blebs or functioning drainage holes in the eye, e.g., to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) of an eye being treated for glaucoma. The systems herein provide a substantially uniform dose across a particular area, thereby providing appropriate radiation therapies.

Claims

1. A radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) comprising: a. a capsule (210) having a distal surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the distal surface (212), and a side wall (215); and b. an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the distal surface (212) of the capsule (210).

2. The RBS of claim 1, wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) comprises Strontium-90 (Sr-90), Phosphorus-32 (P-32), Ruthenium 106 (Ru-106), Yttrium 90 (Y-90), Strontium-90 in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90, an isotope of cesium, I-125, or a combination thereof.

3. The RBS of claim 1, wherein the capsule is from 2 to 12 mm in diameter.

4. The RBS of claim 1, wherein the capsule is 10.8 mm in diameter.

5. The RBS of claim 1, wherein the RBS has an activity from 10 to 120 mCi, or from 3.7 to 4.4 GBq.

6. The RBS claim 1, wherein the RBS emits a beta radiation from a treatment surface to a treatment volume, the treatment volume having a diameter of 8 mm; the RBS system has a dosimetry profile such that: all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at the treatment surface have a dose rate of 55-85 cGy/sec, all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 0.6 mm have a dose rate of 45-55 cGy/sec, all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 1 mm have a dose rate of 35-48 cGy/sec, and all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 2 mm have a dose rate of 17-25 cGy/sec.

7. The RBS of claim 1 further comprising a forceps grip (230) protruding from the proximal surface (211) or recessed into the proximal surface (211) of the capsule that is engageable with a pair of prongs or forceps to allow the RBS to be picked up preferentially by the proximal surface (211).

8. The RBS of claim 1 further comprising a cap system (110) for housing the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS), the cap system (110) comprises an inner cavity (140) formed by a side wall (115) and a bottom surface (112) sealed to a bottom edge (115c) of the side wall (115) around its perimeter, the inner cavity (140) is for accepting the RBS, wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140), the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110).

9. The RBS of claim 8, wherein the flattening filter (150) is annular and has an inner diameter, an outer diameter, and a thickness, the thickness is measured from a flattening filter top surface to a flattening filter bottom surface.

10. The RBS of claim 8, wherein the flattening filter is annular, dome shaped, disc-shaped, a flattened dome, a truncated pyramid, a truncated cone, or trapezoidal.

11. The RBS of claim 8, wherein the flattening filter (150) is constructed from a combination of two or more materials having different densities, different thicknesses, or a combination thereof.

12. The RBS of claim 8, wherein the side wall has a thickness such that only 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS can pass through.

13. The RBS of claim 8, wherein the cap system provides emission of beta radiation through at least a portion of the bottom surface, said portion of the bottom surface being the active surface area (S).

14. The cap system of claim 13, wherein the RBS has an activity of 110 mCi.

15. The cap system of claim 13, wherein the cap system provides beta radiation to a treatment volume (T).

16. The cap system claim 15, wherein doses at all points within T at a depth are within a 70%, an 80% isodose contour, 90% isodose contour, or 100% isodose contour, depth being measured from the bottom surface of the cap system.

17. The cap system of claim 16, wherein the depth is from 0.15 to 0.25 mm.

18. The cap system of claim 15 wherein T is 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

19. The cap system of claim 15, wherein T is 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

20. The cap system of claim 15, wherein T is 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

21. The cap system of claim 15, wherein T is 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

22. An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S)

[0177] The features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from a consideration of the following detailed description presented in connection with the accompanying drawings in which:

[0178] FIG. 1A shows a perspective and cross sectional view of a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) of the present invention. The active material (active source) is in an annulus shape.

[0179] FIG. 1B shows a cross sectional view of an alternative embodiment of the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) of the present invention.

[0180] FIG. 1C shows a cross sectional view of an alternative embodiment of the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) of the present invention.

[0181] FIG. 1D shows a cross sectional view of an alternative embodiment of the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) of the present invention.

[0182] FIG. 2 shows non-limiting examples of alternative configurations of RBSs and/or active material shapes.

[0183] FIG. 3 shows a non-limiting example of the plane of the active material and the plane of the bottom surface of the capsule. The present invention is not limited to this configuration of RBS, nor is the present invention limited to embodiments wherein the plane of the active material and the plane of the bottom surface of the capsule are parallel. For example, as described herein, the RBS may be curved, the active material may be curved, e.g., like a contact lens or variation thereof, the active material may not necessarily be rotationally symmetrical, etc. Also shown are the inner and outer diameters (DI; DO) of the annular active material.

[0184] FIG. 4A shows a cross sectional view of a RBS held within a cap system. The cap system has a bottom surface, which may be referred to as an interface, wherein the interface comprises an annular flattening filter.

[0185] FIG. 4B shows an alternative embodiment of the cap system (RBS not shown). The interface is shown without a flattening filter.

[0186] FIG. 4C shows an alternative embodiment of the cap system. The RBS is not shown; the interface comprises an annular flattening filter.

[0187] FIG. 4D shows an alternative embodiment of the cap system. The RBS is not shown; the interface comprises an annular flattening filter.

[0188] FIG. 4E shows an alternative embodiment of the cap system. The RBS is not shown; the interface comprises an annular flattening filter. Note the ledge at the intersection of the bottom surface and the side wall for helping support an RBS resting thereon.

[0189] FIG. 5A shows a front perspective view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0190] FIG. 5B shows a top perspective view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0191] FIG. 5C shows a top view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0192] FIG. 5D shows a side cross sectional view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0193] FIG. 5E shows a cross sectional view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention. The present invention is not limited to the dimensions disclosed herein. The cap system shows breakaway features that help prevent reuse of the cap. For example, in some embodiments, the cap comprises one or more prongs (166) functioning as part of a latching or snapping or clipping mechanism by which the cap engages a handle.

[0194] FIG. 5F shows a cross sectional view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention. The present invention is not limited to the dimensions disclosed herein. The cap system shows breakaway features that help prevent reuse of the cap. For example, in some embodiments, the cap comprises one or more prongs (166) functioning as part of a latching or snapping or clipping mechanism by which the cap engages a handle.

[0195] FIG. 6A shows a perspective view of a cap system of the present invention, wherein the cap system comprises threads. The threads may engage threads of a handle.

[0196] FIG. 6B shows a side cross sectional view of a cap system of the present invention, wherein the cap system comprises threads. The threads may engage threads of a handle.

[0197] FIG. 6C shows a side view of a handle, wherein the handle comprises threads that can engage that of a threaded cap.

[0198] FIG. 6D shows a detailed view of the threads of the handle.

[0199] FIG. 7A shows a perspective view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0200] FIG. 7B shows a perspective view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0201] FIG. 7C shows a cross sectional view of the cap system of FIG. 7B. The present invention is not limited to the dimensions disclosed herein. As a non-limiting example, the inner diameter of the annular flattening filter may be 3 mm, the outer diameter may be 6 mm; the thickness of the flattening filter may be 0.5 mm; the thickness of the bottom surface of the cap may be 0.25 mm; the ledges may be about 0.01 mm taller than the height of the flattening filter. The outer layer of the side wall of the cap may be about 0.5 mm; the inner layer of the sidewall of the cap may be about 0.25 mm.

[0202] FIG. 7D shows a perspective view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention.

[0203] FIG. 7E shows a cross sectional view of the cap of FIG. 7D. The present invention is not limited to the dimensions disclosed herein. As a non-limiting example, the inner diameter of the annular flattening filter may be 3 mm, the outer diameter may be 6 mm; the thickness of the flattening filter may be 0.5 mm; the thickness of the bottom surface of the cap may be 0.25 mm; the ledges may be about 0.01 mm taller than the height of the flattening filter. The outer layer of the side wall of the cap may be about 0.5 mm; the inner layer of the sidewall of the cap may be about 0.25 mm.

[0204] FIG. 8A shows a perspective view of a cap system of the present invention engaged with a handle. The cap system may engage the handle via a variety of mechanisms, e.g., the cap may snap onto, clip onto, twist onto, etc. the handle.

[0205] FIG. 8B shows a cross sectional view of the cap system and handle engaged, with an RBS housed therein.

[0206] FIG. 9 shows a side cross sectional view of an embodiment of a cap system of the present invention comprising breakaway features that help prevent reuse of the cap. For example, in some embodiments, the cap comprises one or more prongs (166) functioning as part of a latching or snapping or clipping mechanism by which the cap engages a handle. The cap also features ribs (168), which may be broken upon disengagement of the cap from the handle. In certain embodiments, the cap system is formed by two or more pieces or layers. An RBS is shown held within the cap system.

[0207] FIG. 10A shows a cross sectional view of an RBS system. Also shown is the area S2 and the area T2, e.g, the area that emits radiation and the area that is the treatment area. In some embodiments, T2=S2. In some embodiments, T2 is less than S2.

[0208] FIG. 10B shows a schematic view of an RBS or RBS system relative to the MCNP “zero” plane, which is considered a measurement of the surface dose from the RBS (or RBS system). Dose is defined in a medium such as water, tissue, or plastic water (if not specified, it typically refers to water). Additional depths in the treatment volume are shown. For example, a depth may be from 0.19 to 0.24 mm, e.g., 0.2 mm; 0.21 mm, 0.22 mm, 0.23 mm, 0.24 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.38 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.67 mm, 0.7 mm, 0.8 mm, 0.9 mm, 0.94 mm, 1 mm, 1.1 mm, 1.2, mm, 1.3 mm, 1.4 mm, 1.5 mm, 1.6 mm, 1.7 mm, 1.8 mm, 1.9 mm, 1.99 mm, 2 mm, 2.1 mm, 2.2 mm, 2.3 mm, 2.4 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.6 mm, more than 2.5 mm, etc. In certain embodiments, the “surface” dose refers to the film with which it is in contact with, effectively measuring what would be considered the dose at the surface.

[0209] FIG. 10C shows a schematic view of an RBS system emitting radiation to a target area.

[0210] FIG. 10D shows a schematic view of an RBS system emitting radiation to three dimensional planned treatment volume (3D PTV). The PTV is shown to be a distance from the RBS/RBS system for visualization purposes; the PTV is not limited to the particular position and configuration shown.

[0211] FIG. 11A shows Monte Carlo (MCNP) modeling comparisons of the dose distribution of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm.

[0212] FIG. 11B shows the portion of the graph of FIG. 11A that is within a 4 mm radius of the center. The dose is calculated as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0213] FIG. 11C shows Monte Carlo (MCNP) modeling comparisons of the dose distribution of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, combined with a cap system of the present invention (HIPS cap) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm.

[0214] FIG. 11D shows the portion of the graph of FIG. 11C that is within a 4 mm radius of the center. The dose is calculated as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0215] FIG. 12A shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, at a depth of 0.19 mm, 0.67 mm, 0.94 mm, and 1.99 mm.

[0216] FIG. 12B shows the graph of FIG. 12A normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0217] FIG. 12C shows the portion of the graph of FIG. 12B that is within a 4 mm radius of the center.

[0218] FIG. 12D shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, combined with a cap system of the present invention at a depth of 0.19 mm, 0.67 mm, 0.94 mm, and 1.99 mm. The cap system used is a high impact polystyrene cap (HIPS) cap system.

[0219] FIG. 12E shows the graph of FIG. 12D normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0220] FIG. 12F shows the portion of the graph of FIG. 12E that is within a 4 mm radius of the center.

[0221] FIG. 12G shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, combined with a cap system of the present invention at a depth of 0.19 mm, 0.67 mm, 0.94 mm, and 1.99 mm. The cap system used is a representative titanium cap system.

[0222] FIG. 12H shows the graph of FIG. 12G normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0223] FIG. 12I shows the portion of the graph of FIG. 12H that is within a 4 mm radius of the center.

[0224] FIG. 13A shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, at a depth of 0.19 mm, with a HIPS cap system, a representative titanium cap system, or no cap system. The dose is normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0225] FIG. 13B shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, at a depth of 0.67 mm, with a HIPS cap system, a representative titanium cap system, or no cap system. The dose is normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0226] FIG. 13C shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, combined with a cap system of the present invention at a depth of 0.94 mm, with a HIPS cap system, a representative titanium cap system, or no cap system. The dose is normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0227] FIG. 13D shows dosimetry results of a representative RBS, comprising an annulus-shaped active source, combined with a cap system of the present invention at a depth of 1.99 mm, with a HIPS cap system, a representative titanium cap system, or no cap system. The dose is normalized as a percentage relative to the maximum dose.

[0228] FIG. 14 shows a comparison of the doses emitted at 0.04 cm from an RBS (e.g., 110 mCi, 0.2 mm capsule window) combined with a cap system, wherein the thickness of the flattening filter was 0 mm, 0.4 mm, or 0.5 mm. This helps emphasize that the RBS system may be constructed in a variety of ways to achieve a particular dose profile.

[0229] FIG. 15 shows a comparison of the doses emitted from brachytherapy system of the present invention comprising an RBS and a cap system (at 0.4 mm therapeutic depth), wherein the configuration of the interface varies, e.g., the annular attenuation component has a thickness of 0.5 mm, and the inner and outer diameters differ. This helps emphasize that the RBS system may be constructed in a variety of ways to achieve a particular dose profile.

[0230] FIG. 16A shows a comparison of the doses emitted at different depths from an RBS combined with a cap system, wherein the thickness of the annular flattening filter was 0.4 mm, the inner diameter was 3 mm, and the outer diameter was 6 mm.

[0231] FIG. 16B shows a comparison of the doses emitted at different depths from an RBS combined with a cap system, wherein the thickness of the annular flattening filter was 0.5 mm, the inner diameter was 3 mm, and the outer diameter was 6 mm.

[0232] FIG. 17 shows a comparison of the Monte Carlo (MCNP) modeling and the actual dosimetry of an RBS of the present invention. Note the gamma curve with constraints at 10%/1 mm. The gamma value under 1 shows that there is very little variation between the modeling projection and the actual dosimetry. Gamma function analyzes the differences between a measurement and its reference that is condensed to one number which combines dose errors, typically in the In-Field area and position errors in the penumbra region on a normalized vector base.

[0233] FIG. 18 shows Monte Carlo (MCNP) modeling comparisons of the dose distribution of an RBS having an annulus-shaped beta radiation source with and without a cap system that features an annular flattening filter.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0234] The present invention features brachytherapy systems for applying radiation to a target area. While the present invention describes applications of the systems and devices for treating glaucoma drainage bleb tissues or drainage holes, e.g., to help avoid scar formation or wound reversion, to inhibit or reduce fibrogenesis and/or inflammation in blebs or holes, etc., the present invention is not limited to the applications disclosed herein.

[0235] Briefly, the present invention provides radionuclide brachytherapy sources (RBSs), cap systems for use with an RBS, RBS systems comprising an RBS and a cap system, etc. The present invention provides a substantially uniform distribution of radiation from the system (e.g., the RBS system) within a prescribed Planning Treatment (or Target) Volume (PTV) (an area and depth of treatment). As is described herein, the distribution of radiation that is emitted from the brachytherapy applicator may be determined (e.g., shaped) by a flattening filter or attenuation component, the cap system, and/or the RBS. In certain embodiments, the RBS and/or source within is designed in a way, or comprises features, that help determine (e.g., optimize) the distribution of the dose of beta radiation to the target area, e.g., target plane of the treatment area. In certain embodiments, the cap system comprises features that help determine (e.g., optimizes) the distribution of the dose of beta radiation to the target area, e.g., target plane of the treatment area. The radiation attenuation features (or radiation shaping features, flattening filters, etc.) may be integrated into the cap system, or they may be separate units from the cap system and/or RBS.

[0236] While the present invention describes applications of the systems and devices for treating glaucoma drainage bleb tissues or drainage holes, the present invention is not limited to the applications disclosed herein. For example, the systems and devices may feature applying beta radiation to ocular wounds, such as wounds due to the presence of a foreign body or trauma. Further, the systems and devices may feature applying beta radiation to non-ocular targets or to non-medical targets (e.g., thickness and density gauging or material modification and radioluminescence).

[0237] As used herein, the term “drainage device” refers to any or a combination of the general and specific approaches for draining aqueous humor, such as the therapeutics and devices described herein, including minimally invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS) devices and surgery, that are employed to reduce Intraocular Pressure by means of a surgical intervention with a device.

[0238] Various glaucoma drainage procedures and devices, including trabeculectomy, drainage tubes, and devices used for Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS), are described herein or are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. For the purposes of the invention, other surgical innovations and/or devices in addition to those described above may be included in the scope of the invention and described and labeled as MIGS. For example, techniques and devices that may alternatively be described as Moderately Invasive Glaucoma Surgery or Augmented Incisional Surgery is also included in the present invention.

Isotopes and Radioactivity

[0239] The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) (https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/measuring-radiation.html) defines radioactivity as “the amount of ionizing radiation released by a material. Whether it emits alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, or neutrons, a quantity of radioactive material is expressed in terms of its radioactivity (or simply its activity), which represents how many atoms in the material decay in a given time period. The units of measure for radioactivity are the curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq).” Activity in a radioactive-decay process is defined as the number of disintegrations per second, or the number of unstable atomic nuclei that decay per second in a given sample. Activity is expressed in the International System of Units by the becquerel (abbreviated Bq), which is exactly equal to one disintegration per second. Another unit that may be used is the Curie, wherein one curie is approximately the activity of 1 gram of radium and equals (exactly) 3.7×10.sup.10 Bq (3.7E10 Bq). The specific activity of radionuclides is relevant when it comes to select them for production for therapeutic pharmaceuticals.

[0240] By the USNRC definition, absorbed dose is defined as the amount of radiation absorbed, e.g., the amount of energy that radioactive sources deposit in materials through which they pass or the concentration of energy deposited in tissue as a result of an exposure to ionizing radiation. The absorbed dose is equal to the radiation exposure (ions or Ci/kg) of the radiation beam multiplied by the ionization energy of the medium to be ionized. Typically, the units for absorbed dose are the radiation absorbed dose (rad) and gray (Gy). Gy is a unit of ionizing radiation dose defined as the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter. The rad has generally been replaced by the Gy in SI derived units. 1 Gy is equivalent to 100 rad.

[0241] In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of Strontium 90 (Sr-90) in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90 (Y-90). Strontium 90 (Sr-90) decays by beta radiation to Yttrium 90 (Y-90). The parent Sr-90 isotope has a half-life of 28.79 years (Firestone and Shirley, Table of Isotopes 8th ed, V2, 1996 cites the half-life as 28.78y). The daughter Y-90 isotope has a half-life of 64.0 hours. (Firestone and Shirley, Table of Isotopes 8th ed, V2, 1996 cites the half-life as 64.1h). The two isotopes are in secular equilibrium with the decay rate of the combined source controlled by the Sr-90 parent but with the therapeutic beta radiations emanating from the daughter Y-90 with maximum energy of 2.28 MeV and an average energy of 934 keV.

[0242] In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of Yttrium-90 with a half-life of 64 hours. Y-90 decays to Zirconium 90 (Zr-90), a stable isotope, along three different routes via beta emission, wherein 99.9885% of the time it decays with a maximum beta particle energy of 2.2801 MeV and a mean beta particle energy of 0.9337 MeV, or approximately or 1.5×10.sup.−13 (1.5E-13) joules. The other minor decay paths produce additional very low abundance (0.0115%), high energy (k1760.7 keV)gamma-rays, and electrons. Compared to the dominant path, the radiation doses from these paths are clinically negligible. In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of Phosphorus-132. In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of Ruthenium-106. In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of one or more radioactive isotopes of Cesium. In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of Cesium-131.

[0243] In some embodiments, the present invention features the use of one or more radioactive isotopes.

[0244] The Planning Target Volume (PTV) or Planning Treatment Volume (PTV) is a geometrical concept introduced for radiation treatment planning. The PTV is used to ensure that the prescribed dose is actually delivered to all parts of the target tissue. Non-limiting examples are shown in FIG. 10A, FIG. 10B, FIG. 10C, and FIG. 10D. As an example, it would follow that the Target Volume could be defined as a disk of diameter 8 mm and depth of 0.2 mm, containing the tissue. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 0.5 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 1 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 1.5 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 0.2 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 0.5 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 1 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 1.5 mm. In some embodiments, the target volume has a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm.

[0245] For example, a prescription dose of brachytherapy of 10 Gray (1000 cGy) is 10 joules/kg absorbed dose throughout the Target Volume. Measurements have suggested a model Sr-90/Y-90 RBS with Activity of 1.48 GBq produces a surface dose rate of approximately 0.20 Gy per second. To deliver a dose of 10 Gy to the Target Volume would require an irradiation time of 50 seconds. The number of nuclei that decay during this 50 second treatment would be 1.48 ×10.sup.9 Bq (1.48E9 Bq) (disintegrations per second)×50 seconds =7.4×10.sup.10 (7.4E10).

[0246] The unique dose prescription convention traditionally utilized in beta ophthalmic applicator brachytherapy specifies the maximum dose to the center point of the proximal surface. The dose to any point radial from the center dose, and/or at any depth in tissue, is a lower dose than the prescribed dose. For example, Soares et al has reported on the surface distribution of Sr-90 +Y-90 ophthalmic applicators.

[0247] In a 1 D prescription convention, the dose throughout the Planning Target Volume (PTV) is less than the prescribed dose at the proximal surface center area. For example, a PTV comprising a disc of equal diameter to a legacy Beta Applicator's active surface, and of shallow depth, (e.g., r=4 mm, z=0.5 mm), the Treated Volume (TV) is treated at a lower (unspecified) dose than the prescribed central surface dose.

[0248] Whereas conversely, for plaque brachytherapy the standard convention for dose prescriptions is the specification of the minimum dose to the distal apex of the lesion. For example, the Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study (COMS) prescribes 85 Gy to the (distal) tumor apex. This prescribed dose is the minimum distal dose, whereas the proximal surface dose is larger.

[0249] Treated Volume (TV) is the volume of tissue enclosed within a specific isodose envelope enclosing the prescription dose. A non-limiting example of a 2D TV is the 80% isodose area. TV is not limited to 80% isodose areas and volumes. Beta radiation's significant dose attenuation with depth may require a different treatment dose at depth. For example, a 10 cGy dose near the proximal surface (e.g. depth z=0.2 mm) may provide for a therapeutic prescription dose of 6 Gy at the depth z=0.6 mm.

[0250] Radiation is attenuated by distance and density (e.g. shielding). In addition, shorter exposure times provide for a less received dose. Alpha particles are described as easily shielded. A thin piece of paper or several cm of air is usually sufficient to stop them. Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles. Beta shields are sometimes made of aluminum, brass, plastic, or other materials of low atomic number to reduce the production of bremsstrahlung radiation. Beta can also be shielded by higher atomic number materials. Gamma rays' linear attenuation coefficients are proportional to the absorber density.

[0251] Radiation dose can be modified by attenuation materials. The dose shape can be collimated by high density materials such as lead and other alloys. For example, a rapid method of production of irregular-shaped fields for use with patients receiving electron radiotherapy was described by Usher using a low melting point alloy (Plane JH, Usher C. A rapid method of production of irregular-shaped fields for use with patients receiving electron radiotherapy. Br J Radiol. 1990 Nov; 63(755): 882-3.)

[0252] The differential dose rate across the diameter, or portion of the area thereof, can be modified with unequal mass-density paths (lengths).

[0253] One example is to vary the thickness of the same material over a portion of the area or diameter so as to alter the output dose over the area.

[0254] Therapeutic linear accelerators used in medicine are often fitted with a flattening filter. Faddegon B A, O'Brien P, Mason D L. The flatness of Siemens linear accelerator x-ray fields. Med Phys. 1999 Feb; 26(2): 220-8 report on a flattening filter designed with Monte Carlo and was subsequently machined from brass and mounted on their Siemens linear accelerator MXE treatment unit x-ray fields. Their measurements demonstrate that the large field flattener extends the useful radius of the field.

[0255] Another method is to place material of various density over a portion of the area or diameter to alter the output dose over the area. For example, a portion of the field can be selectively modified by adding a denser (higher z) material.

Biological Effects of Radiation

[0256] The biological effectiveness of radiation depends on the linear energy transfer (LET), total dose, fractionation rate, and radiosensitivity of the targeted cells or tissues. As radiation interacts with matter, it loses its energy through interactions with atoms in its direct path. In radiation therapy, LET is defined as the average amount of energy lost per defined distance in tissue, as in the energy deposited into a handful of cells. LET occurs at different rates in different tissues, and quantification of LET in cellular systems is an important component of determining correct dosage in radiology. Low LET radiations are X-rays, gamma rays and beta particles.

[0257] Radiation induced ionizations can act directly on the cellular molecules and cause damage, such as DNA damage. Radiation induced ionizations also can act indirectly, producing ions and free radicals that are derived from the ionization or excitation of the water component of the cell. Exposure of cells to ionizing radiation induces high-energy radiolysis of H.sub.2O water molecules into H.sup.+ and OH.sup.− ions, which predominantly exist in water as H3O(H2O)3.sup.+ and OH(H2O)3.sup.− and free radicals H and O. These radicals are themselves chemically reactive, and in turn can recombine to produce a series of highly reactive combinations such as superoxide (O.sub.2.sup.−) and peroxide (H.sub.2O.sub.2) that produce oxidative damage to molecules, such as DNA, within the cell. Direct interaction of body tissue with beta particles and with the cascade of energetic secondary electrons that are generated whenever beta particles pass through matter, may break chemical bonds within tissue. Ionizing radiation-induced DNA breaks represent one of the dominant mechanisms of action of beta brachytherapy.

[0258] Multiple pathways are involved in the cell after its exposure to ionizing radiation. In the cellular response to radiation, several sensors detect the induced DNA damage and trigger signal transduction pathways. The activation of several signal transduction pathways by ionizing radiation results in altered expression of a series of target genes.

[0259] The promoters or enhancers of these genes may contain binding sites for one or more transcription factors, and a specific transcription factor can influence the transcription of multiple genes. The transcription factors p53, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), the specificity protein 1 (SP1)-related retinoblastoma control proteins (RCPs), two p53-dependent genes, GADD45 and CDKNIA, and genes associated with the NER pathway (e.g., XPC) are typically upregulated by ionizing radiation exposure. Interestingly, NF-κB activation has been shown to strongly depend on charged particles' LET, with a maximal activation in the LET range of 90-300 keV/μm.

[0260] Importantly, the transcribed subset of target genes is critical for the decision between resuming normal function after cell-cycle arrest and DNA repair, entering senescence, or proceeding through apoptosis in cases of severe DNA damage.

[0261] Arrest of the cell cycle is an important part of DNA damage response, facilitating DNA repair and maintenance of genomic stability. Regulators of cell cycle arrest are activated by phosphorylation by ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ATR. For example, p53 has a short half-life and is stabilized in response to a variety of cellular stresses after phosphorylation by ATM. After exposure to ionizing radiation, phosphorylation of the serine residues 15 and 20 on p53 by checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2) reduces its binding to MDM2, which in its bound state targets p53 for degradation by the proteasome pathway. Thus, dissociation of p53 from MDM2 prolongs the half-life of p53. Other proteins, such as Pin 1, Parc, and p300, and p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF) histone acetyltransferases regulate the transactivation activity of p53. For efficient repair, especially in non-dividing cells, cellular levels of deoxyribonucleotides are increased during the DNA damage repair by p53-dependent transcriptional induction of the ribonucleotide reductase RRM2B (p53R2). It is accepted that the severity of DNA damage is the critical factor in directing the signaling cascade toward reversible cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. As part of the signaling cascade, the abundance of p53 protein, specific posttranslational modifications, and its interaction with downstream effectors, such as GADD45α or p21, may be responsible for directing the cellular response at this decision point.

[0262] Other pathways besides DNA and p53 can be involved in the cellular response to exposure to ionizing radiation. For example, ionizing radiation can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cytoplasm.

[0263] Low-dose radiotherapy (LD-RT) is known to exert an anti-inflammatory effect. In vitro models have revealed anti-inflammatory effects of LD-RT in doses ranging from 0.1-1.0 Gy on immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils. Studies have also shown that low-dose radiation therapy has an anti-inflammatory effect involving diminished CCL20 chemokine expression and granulocyte/endothelial cell adhesion. An in vitro study by Khaw et al. (1991, British Journal of Ophthalmology 75: 580-583) of beta irradiation of fibroblasts in culture found that “radiation reduces the proliferation of human Tenon's capsule fibroblasts. The doses of radiation which inhibited cell proliferation more than 50% (at day 7 and 14) and yet did not cause a decrease in the cell population were 500, 750, and 1000 rads.” The fibroblasts enter a period of growth arrest but do not die.

[0264] The present invention features systems and devices for the application of beta radiation used in combination with surgical procedures and/or implants (e.g., MIGS implants) as described herein. The brachytherapy provided by the systems and devices herein helps to prevent or reduce bleb scarring or failure to maintain a functioning bleb. Without wishing to limit the present invention to any theory or mechanism, it is believed that the brachytherapy devices and systems herein may help to inhibit or reduce inflammation and/or fibrogenesis by downregulating cellular (e.g., fibroblast) activity without cell death.

[0265] The application of beta radiation provides a medicament-like treatment, similar to a drug, wherein the beta radiation, when consumed by the cells, causes biological changes in signaling and gene transcription, thereby affecting cellular activity and growth, e.g., cell cycle arrest.

[0266] The present invention provides compositions or products that are radioactive compositions (sources of beta radiation). The radioactive composition has a therapeutic effect via the generation of beta radiation by, for example, the mechanisms previously discussed. In generating the beta radiation, radioactive composition is consumed (e.g., the product is gradually used up), in that the radioisotope atoms of the beta radioisotope brachytherapy source decay into other nuclides.

Targets of the Eye

[0267] As previously discussed, the present invention provides systems and devices, e.g., ophthalmic applicator systems, brachytherapy systems, etc., for applying beta radiation, e.g., to a treatment area or target of the eye. In some embodiments, the target is a site of the bleb in an eye being treated for glaucoma with a MIGS implant or MIGS procedure. In some embodiments, the target is a site of the bleb in an eye treated with a trabeculectomy. In some embodiments, the target is a site of the bleb in an eye treated with minimally invasive micro sclerostomy (MIMS). In some embodiments, the target is a site of the hole in an eye treated with MIMS. In some embodiments, the target is a site of the implant that is surgically inserted into the eye for the purpose of treating glaucoma. In some embodiments, the target is a site of the eye associated with pterygium.

[0268] In some embodiments, the target comprises an entire bleb. In some embodiments, the target comprises a portion of a bleb. In some embodiments, the target area surrounds an end of the MIGS implant. In some embodiments, the target comprises at least a portion of the bleb above a drainage channel. In some embodiments, the target further comprises at least a portion of the bleb above a drainage channel and at least a portion of a perimeter of the bleb. In some embodiments, the target further comprises at least a portion of the bleb above a drainage channel, at least a portion of a perimeter of the bleb, and at least a portion of the bleb between the perimeter and the portion above the drainage channel.

[0269] In some embodiments, the target area is the entire bleb, e.g., the perimeter of the bleb, the center of the bleb, and the portions of the bleb in between the perimeter and the center. In some embodiments, the target area is the perimeter of the bleb, e.g., a ring-shaped target area. In some embodiments, the target is the perimeter of the bleb and a portion of the bleb next to the perimeter, e.g., the target may be annulus-shaped. In some embodiments, the target is a portion of the bleb in between the center and the perimeter. In some embodiments, the target is at least a portion of the center of the bleb. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned descriptions of target areas. For example, in certain embodiments, the target is (or includes) tissue surrounding the rim of a drainage channel.

[0270] In certain embodiments, the target is scarring at the back end of the microtube. New generations of microtubes have been shown to be easier to insert and resulting in less follow-up than conventional drainage surgery called trabeculectomy. However, a disadvantage of the microtube procedure may be that the drainage comes out of one focal drainage point and it is easier for the tissue around one focal point to scar and encapsulate the outflow point with a small igloo-like dome of scar tissue. This occurs because the cells in the tissue around the tube end are stimulated by damaged blood and the contents of the aqueous fluid to divide and produce new collagen tissue. The fibroblast cells then divide multiple times (proliferate) and produce new tissue, then change into elongated cells which are full of contractile fibers that contract the tissue around the tip, forming the dome of scar tissue obstructing the flow of fluid. Without wishing to limit the present invention to any theory or mechanism, it is believed that beta radiation causes the fibroblast cells to go into a state of hibernation so they do not divide and cannot make collagen or contract the new collagen tissue.

[0271] In some embodiments, the target is a target other than that associated with MIGS/MIMS/trabeculectomy. In some embodiments, the ophthalmic target is other targets than those associated with glaucoma drainage surgery. In some embodiments the target is inflammation, autoimmune mediated pathologies, or vascular pathologies of the eye. In some embodiments, the target is associated with infections (for example, Herpes Simplex Keratitis or Tuberculous sclerokeratitis), Corneal ulcerations (for example, Moorens), Allergic disorders (for example, Vernal), benign or malignant Tumors (for example, Squamous Cell Carcinoma) or benign growths (for example, papillomas), Degenerations (for example, pterygium), Cicitarising disease (for example, pemphigoid), Inflammations (for example, meibomian gland), ocular manifestations of Stevens-Johnson syndrome, Drug-induced cicatrizing conjunctivitis, Ligneous conjunctivitis, Corneal Vascularization, Pterygia, Vernal Catarrh, Small papillomas of the eyelid, limbal carcinoma, ocular malignant melanoma, nevus pigmentosus of the conjunctiva, hemangioma, chalazion. In some embodiments, the target is in the orbit of the eye. The present invention includes other ophthalmic indications and is not limited to the aforementioned targets.

Brachytherapy Systems and Devices

[0272] As previously discussed, the present invention provides systems and devices for applying radiation to a target, e.g., a target of the eye, e.g., glaucoma treatment-associated drainage blebs, such as those associated with foreign bodies or other glaucoma procedures, to maintain functioning blebs.

[0273] The brachytherapy systems and devices of the present invention may include but are not limited to (a) a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS); (b) a cap system for accepting a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS); (c) a cap system and an RBS; (d) a cap system and an applicator (e.g., a handle); and/or (e) a cap system, an RBS, and an applicator (e.g., a handle). In certain embodiments, a flattening filter, a radiation attenuation shield, a radiation attenuation mask, an interface, or other similar feature that blocks or reduces a portion of radiation may be integrated into the cap system. In certain embodiments, a flattening filter, a radiation attenuation shield, a radiation attenuation mask, an interface, or other similar feature that blocks or reduces a portion of radiation may be integrated into the RBS. In certain embodiments, the flattening filter may be a separate component, e.g., separate from the cap and/or the RBS. The brachytherapy systems and devices of the present invention may include but are not limited to (a) a cap system and a flattening filters; (b) a cap system, an RBS, and a flattening filter; (c) a cap system, a flattening filter, and an applicator (e.g., a handle); (d) a cap system, an RBS, a flattening filter, and an applicator (e.g., a handle); and/or (e) any other combination of components described herein.

Radionuclide Brachytherapy Source (RBS)

[0274] The RBS of the present invention is constructed in a manner that is consistent with the Federal Code of Regulations, but is not limited to the terms mentioned in the Code. For example, the RBS of the present invention may further comprise a substrate. Also, for example, in addition to being enclosed by the mentioned “gold, titanium, stainless steel, or platinum”, in some embodiments the radionuclide (isotope) of the present invention may be enclosed by a combination of one or more of “gold, titanium, stainless steel, or platinum”. In some embodiments, the radionuclide (isotope) of the present invention may be enclosed by one or more layers of an inert material comprising silver, gold, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, stainless steel, platinum, tin, zinc, nickel, copper, other metals, ceramics, glass, or a combination of these.

[0275] In some embodiments, a surface on the substrate is shaped in a manner to provide a controlled projection of radiation. The substrate may be constructed from a variety of materials. For example, in some embodiments the substrate is constructed from a material comprising, a silver, an aluminum, a stainless steel, tungsten, nickel, tin, zirconium, zinc, copper, a metallic material, a ceramic material, a ceramic matrix, the like (including glass, glassy, enamel), or a combination thereof (in general, a chemically and physically stable, radiation tolerant refractory material). In some embodiments, the substrate functions to shield a portion of the radiation emitted from the isotope. The encapsulation may be constructed from a variety of materials, for example from one or more layers of an inert material comprising a steel, a silver, a gold, a titanium, a platinum, another biocompatible material, the like, or a combination thereof.

[0276] Without wishing to limit the present invention to any theory or mechanisms, it is believed that previous brachytherapy sources generally only treated the center part of the target or under-dose the peripheral area and/or overdose the center. The systems of the present invention generally provide a more uniform dose across the target area, e.g., across an area of a plane within the target area. In certain embodiments, the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) may be designed and/or constructed to provide a more substantially uniform radiation dose across a plane within the target, e.g., as compared to previously constructed devices. In certain embodiments, a portion of the brachytherapy system (e.g., cap system, radiation attenuation shield, etc.) may be designed and/or constructed to provide a more substantially uniform radiation dose across the target, e.g., as compared to previously constructed devices. In certain embodiments, a portion of the brachytherapy system (e.g., cap system, radiation attenuation shield, etc.) and the RBS may be designed and/or constructed to provide a more substantially uniform radiation dose across the target, e.g., as compared to previously constructed devices. The present invention is not limited to the dosimetry described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the system (e.g., the cap system, the radiation attenuation shield, the cap system with an integrated radiation attenuation shield or flattening filter, etc.) is designed such that the dose received at the perimeter of the bleb is higher than that received at the center of the bleb.

[0277] Iterative computer simulations of output dosimetry may be used to determine an optimized design of device. Film dosimetry is a method of measuring radioactive delivery from a source and can be used to measure the dose across the target. It can also be used to calibrate or compare radioactive sources or to determine the homogeneity of the dose pattern.

[0278] Referring to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 1C, and FIG. 1D, the present invention provides a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS), e.g., a sealed radiological or radioactive source. In some embodiments, the RBS comprises a capsule (210) having a distal surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the distal surface (212), and a side wall (215); and an active beta radioisotope material (220) (e.g., a substrate) encased in the capsule (e.g., encapsulation). The active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the distal surface (212) of the capsule (210). In some embodiments, the side wall (215) is aligned with the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. In some embodiments, the side wall (215) extends upwardly past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule.

[0279] Referring to FIG. 1A, in some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., capsule) is cylindrical. Referring to FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., capsule) is disc shaped, cuboidal, rounded, kidney-shaped, elliptical, etc. In some embodiments, the RBS capsule is a disc wherein the middle has a different thickness than the outer edges (e.g., a concave curvature in the middle). The present invention is not limited to those shapes, and any shape that achieves a desired dose profile is encompassed herein. The shape of the RBS may help provide a controlled projection of radiation (e.g., a therapeutic dose) onto the target. The shape of the RBS may help the radiation dose to fall off quickly at the periphery of the target (whatever the target is determined to be, e.g., the whole bleb, a portion of the bleb, etc.). This may help keep the radiation within a limited area/volume and may help prevent unwanted exposure of structures such as the lens to radiation.

[0280] In some embodiments, the substrate or active beta radioisotope material is any source of radiation, e.g., any source of beta radiation. In some embodiments, the substrate or active beta radioisotope material comprises Phosphorus-32 (P-32), Ruthenium 106 (Ru-106), Yttrium 90 (Y-90), Strontium-90 (Sr-90) in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90 (Y-90), an isotope of cesium (e.g., Cs-131), I-125, or other radionuclides, or a combination thereof. The present invention also includes sources wherein both beta and gamma are emitted. The present invention also includes sources that emit low energy photos (e.g., soft x-rays), which attenuate similarly to betas in soft tissue (e.g., see, for example, Lee et al., 2008, Med. Phys. 35 (11) 5151-5160). In some embodiments, the isotope is coated on the substrate, and both the substrate and isotope are further coated with the encapsulation. In some embodiments, the radioactive isotope is embedded in the substrate. In some embodiments, the radioactive isotope is part of the substrate matrix. In some embodiments, the encapsulation may be coated onto the isotope, and optionally, a portion of the substrate. In some embodiments, the encapsulation is coated around the entire substrate and the isotope. In some embodiments, the encapsulation encloses the isotope. In some embodiments, the encapsulation encloses the entire substrate and the isotope. In some embodiments, the radioactive isotope is an independent piece and is sandwiched between the encapsulation and the substrate.

[0281] In some embodiments, the primary radionuclide in the source is Sr-90, which decays by beta radiation to Y-90, which is in secular equilibrium with the Sr-90 parent controlling the decay rate and the daughter Y-90 emanating the therapeutic beta radiations. In some embodiments, the decay produces an average energy of 934 keV and a maximum energy of 2.28 Mev. In some embodiments, the Sr-90 decays to Y-90 via beta emission 100% of the time with a maximum beta particle energy of 0.546 MeV and a mean beta particle energy of 0.1958 MeV. In some embodiments, the Y-90 decays to Zr-90 (stable isotope) along three different routes via beta emission. In some embodiments, 99.9885% of the time with a maximum beta particle energy of 2.282 MeV and a mean beta particle energy of 0.9337 MeV. In some embodiments, 0.0115% of the time with a maximum beta particle energy of 0.5194 MeV and a mean beta particle energy of 0.1856 MeV. This pathway may produce additional very low abundance high energy gamma-rays (1760.7 keV), and electrons, but these are considered clinically negligible, especially for an encapsulated source. In some embodiments, 1.4×10.sup.−6% of the time with a maximum beta particle energy of 0.0938 MeV and a mean beta particle energy of 0.0250 MeV.

[0282] In some embodiments, the desired nominal dose of 1000 cGy delivered at a depth of 200 μm from the conjunctiva surface in 30 seconds yields a dose rate of 33.3 cGy/s. In some embodiments, the allowed variation to achieve the desired dose is a treatment time of not less than 25 seconds (not greater than 40.0 cGy/s) and not more than 55 seconds (not less than 18.2 cGy/s)

[0283] In some embodiments, the dose rate will not vary by more than ±5% over the plane created at 400 μm water equivalent depth from the conjunctiva surface and a diameter 80% of the active material outer diameter. In some embodiments, the dose rate will be greater than 20 cGy/s through the volume created from the conjunctival surface to a depth of 600 μm water equivalent depth over a diameter of at least 90% of the active material outer diameter. In some embodiments, the allowed variation of dose rate throughout the 200 μm to 600 μm depths of the PTV is between 33.3 cGy/s and 20 cGy/s. Practically this is a peak dose rate of 33.3 cGy at 200 μm, and a minimum dose not less than 20 cGy/s at 600 μm.

[0284] In some embodiments, the capsule is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel, gold, platinum, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, silver, tin, zinc, copper, nickel, aluminum, a ceramic, glass, a metal alloy, zirconium, or a combination thereof.

[0285] In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 10.8 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 4 to 20 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 5 to 15 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 10 to 20 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 10 to 15 m. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 5 to 7 mm (e.g., 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 7 to 10 mm (e.g., 7 mm, 7.5 mm, 8 mm, 8.5 mm, 9 mm, 9.5 mm, 10 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 9 to 12 mm (e.g., 9 mm, 9.5 mm, 10 mm, 10.5 mm, 11 mm, 11.5 mm, 12 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 2 to 12 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 10 to 14 mm (e.g., 10 mm, 10.5 mm, 11 mm, 11.5 mm, 12 mm, 12.5 mm, 13 mm, 13.5 mm, 14 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 12 to 16 mm (e.g., 12 mm, 12.5 mm, 13 mm, 13.5 mm, 14 mm, 14.5 mm, 15 mm, 15.5 mm, 16 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter from 14 to 18 mm (e.g., 14 mm, 14.5 mm, 15 mm, 15.5 mm, 16 mm, 16.5 mm, 17 mm, 17.5 mm, 18 mm). In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 3 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 4 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS has a diameter of 5 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 5 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 6 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS has a diameter of 7 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 8 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 9 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 10 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS has a diameter of 11 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 12 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 13 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 14 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 15 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS has a diameter of 16 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 17 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 18 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 19 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter of 20 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., the capsule) has a diameter more than 20 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., capsule) has a diameter from 10 to 100 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS (e.g., capsule) has a diameter from 100 to 500 mm.

[0286] In some embodiments, the RBS has an activity of 116 mCi or 4.292 GBq. In some embodiments, the RBS has an activity from 100 to 120 mCi, or from 3.7 to 4.4 GBq. In some embodiments, the RBS has an activity from 50 to 100 mCi, or from 1.85 to 3.7 GBq. In some embodiments, the RBS has an activity from 10 to 50 mCi, or from 0.37 to 1.85 GBq. The present invention is not limited to these activities. These parameters should be changed to reflect the recent finding that the dose rate from 116 mCi was double what had been predicted by MCNP due to a failure of including 2 beta particles per decay in the original MCNP model. Therefore, all parameters should be halved (for this glaucoma application). For other applications (e.g. industrial, research, calibration), a wider activity range can be included varying from 0Ci-300 mCi.

[0287] In some embodiments, the RBS further comprises a forceps grip (230) disposed in or on the proximal surface (211) of the capsule that is engageable with a pair of prongs or forceps to allow the RBS to be picked up. The forceps grip (230) may be an indicator to a user to show that the RBS is to be picked up preferentially only by the proximal surface (211). The forceps grip (230) helps prevent the RBS from being inserted into a cap system in an unintended orientation.

[0288] In some embodiments, the side wall (215) and the forceps grip (230) extend past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) extends past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) has at least a first side and a second side opposite the first side, wherein only the first side and second side can be gripped by forceps. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) has at least a first side, a second side opposite the first side, and a third side, wherein the third side cannot be gripped by forceps. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) is recessed into the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) protrudes from the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. In some embodiments, the forceps grip has a first side (231a) and a second side (231b) opposite the first side (231a), wherein a first indentation (232) is disposed at an intersection of the first side (231a) and the proximal surface (211) of the capsule (210) and a second indentation (232) is disposed at an intersection of the second side (231b) and the proximal surface (211) of the capsule (210). In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) is a tab, e.g., a protrusion. In certain embodiments, the forceps grip (230) is a lot, a magnet, an indentation, a ring, a loop, or any other appropriate means. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) is a ring. In some embodiments, the forceps grip (230) is a protruding threaded design. In some embodiments, the ring is for engaging with a threaded pole. In some embodiments, the outer wall (215) is flush with the top of the protrusion (230), forming a small cavity. In some embodiments, the RBS has a diameter of about 10.5 mm. In some embodiments, the RBS has a height of about 4.25 mm with a height of 1.75 mm for the forceps grip feature.

[0289] Referring to FIG. 1A, In some embodiments, the active beta radioisotope material (220) is in an annulus configuration. The present invention is not limited to this configuration. Referring to FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the radioisotope material (220) is in an alternative configuration, e.g., dome shaped, disc shaped, cuboidal, rounded, a round disc, kidney-shaped, elliptical, tiered, rectangular or cuboidal, a flattened dome, terraced, a truncated pyramid, a truncated cone, or trapezoidal, tier-shaped (e.g., wedding cake-shaped), or rounded tier-shaped, bean shaped, or any other appropriate shape. In some embodiments, the material (220) is rounded like a disc but is thicker at the edges than the center. The present invention is not limited to those shapes, and any shape that achieves a desired dose profile is encompassed herein. FIG. 3 shows the inner diameter and outer diameter of an annular radioisotope material.

[0290] Interfaces and Cap Systems

[0291] Referring to FIG. 4A, FIG. 4B, FIG. 4C, FIG. 4D, and FIG. 4E, FIG. 5A, FIG. 5B, FIG. 5D, FIG. 5D, FIG. 5E, and FIG. 5F, FIG. 6A, FIG. 6B, FIG. 6C, and FIG. 6D, and FIG. 7A, FIG. 7B, FIG. 7C, and FIG. 7D, and FIG. 8A, FIG. 8B, and FIG. 9, the present invention also features cap systems and interfaces for use with the radionuclide brachytherapy sources herein.

[0292] For example the present invention provides a cap system (110) for housing a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the cap system (110) comprises an inner cavity (140) formed by a side wall (115) and a bottom surface (112) sealed to a bottom edge (115c) of the side wall (115) around its perimeter, the inner cavity (140) is for accepting the RBS (210). While the figures show that the bottom surface (122) is flat, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. In some embodiments the bottom surface (112) has a curvature. For example, the bottom surface may feature a concave curvature. In some embodiments, the bottom surface features a convex curvature. In some embodiments, the bottom surface has a portion that has curvature and a portion that is flat. In certain embodiments, the shape of the bottom surface may be a way of shaping the radiation.

[0293] In some embodiments, the cap system is cylindrical, e.g, the side wall is cylindrical, the bottom surface is round. The cap system is not limited to a cylindrical configuration and may be shaped in any appropriate manner to accommodate an RBS. For example, the cap system may be rounded, e.g., having a concave or convex curvature.

[0294] The size of the cap system may be determined as appropriate for the RBS to be used in combination with the cap system. In some embodiments, the side wall or the inner cavity has a diameter from 7 to 14 mm. In some embodiments, the side wall or the inner cavity has a diameter of 12 mm or 13 mm. In some embodiments, the side wall has a height from 4 to 12 mm as measured from its bottom edge to its top edge. In some embodiments, the side wall has a height of 8.2 mm as measured from its bottom edge to its top edge. In some embodiments, the bottom surface of the cap system is 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the bottom surface of the cap system is from 8 to 10 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the bottom surface of the cap system is from 10 to 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the bottom surface of the cap system is from 7 to 14 mm in diameter.

[0295] Referring to FIG. 10A, radiation is emitted from an area S, which is at least a portion of the bottom surface of the cap system. The area T refers to the diameter of the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the S is the same as T, e.g., the diameter of radiation emitted from the cap system is equal to the diameter of the treatment volume. In some embodiments, S is larger than T, e.g., there is a portion of radiation emitted that is not considered part of the treatment volume. In some embodiments, S is 9.8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, S is 8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, S is from 6 to 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, S is an area defined within a 3 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, S is an area defined within a 4 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, S is an area defined within a 5 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is 9.8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 6 to 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 1 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 3 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 4 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 5 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is 60-80% of S. In some embodiments, T is 80-89% of S. In some embodiments, T is 90-99% of S. In some embodiments, T=S. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions.

[0296] In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 20-75% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 20-80% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 20-90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 20-95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 20-99% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 50 to 75% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 70 to 90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 80-95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 90-95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 95-100% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 30-75% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 30-80% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 30-90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 30-95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 30-99% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted from S or T, which is 40-75% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted S or T, which is 40-80% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted S or T, which is 40-90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted S or T, which is 40-95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, radiation from the radioisotope is emitted S or T, which is 40-99% of the surface area of the outer surface of the cap system. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions.

[0297] Referring to FIG. 4E, in some embodiments, a ledge (148) is disposed in the inner cavity (140) at an intersection of the bottom surface (112) and the side wall (115). The ledge (148) helps distribute weight of an RBS seated thereon. In some embodiments, the ledge (148) is configured to be situated 0.1 mm above a top surface of the flattening filter (150). The present invention is not limited to this configuration.

[0298] Referring to FIG. 5A, FIG. 5B, FIG. 5C, and FIG. 5D, in some embodiments, a lip (120) is disposed along a top edge of the side wall (115) of the cap system (110). The lip (120) may extend outwardly (e.g., orientated in the direction outwardly from the outer surface of the outer wall (115)) from the top edge (111) of the outer wall (115).

[0299] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising a polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises high impact polystyrene (HIPS). In some embodiments, the polymer comprises polycarbonate. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising a titanium alloy, e.g., Grade 5 titanium (Ti6Al4V), Grade 23 titanium, etc.

[0300] In certain embodiments, the side wall (115) comprises an inner layer (160) and an outer layer (115), the outer layer being a sterile barrier. The side wall may be constructed from a material comprising a metal, a metal alloy, a polymer, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the polymer comprises a plastic material. In certain embodiments, the polymer comprises high impact polystyrene (HIPS). In certain embodiments, the inner layer (160) is constructed from a shielding material of specific electron density, including but not limited to tantalum. The outer layer may be constructed from a polymer material, e.g., a plastic material. In certain embodiments, the bottom surface, the flattening filter, or a combination thereof is constructed from stainless steel or titanium. In certain embodiments, the inner layer has a thickness of 0.35 mm. In certain embodiments, the outer layer has a thickness of 0.5 mm. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions.

[0301] In certain embodiments, the side wall is configured such that only less than 5 Sv can pass through. In certain embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that only 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS can pass through. In certain embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that less than 3 Sv can pass through. In certain embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that less than 5 Sv can pass through.

[0302] In certain embodiments, the cap system (110) is reusable. In certain embodiments, the cap system (110) is sterilizable.

[0303] The cap system of the present invention may be used in combination with a brachytherapy applicator handle (610), e.g., for housing an RBS therein between. Referring to FIG. 6A, FIG. 6B, FIG. 6C, and FIG. 6D, in some embodiments, the cap system comprises threads (182) for threadably engaging complementary threads (184) on a distal end (612) of the brachytherapy applicator handle (610).

[0304] In certain embodiments, as described herein, the cap system (110) comprises a flattening filter (150) for reducing radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with the flattening filter or in proximity to the flattening filter. The flattening filter (150) may be disposed on the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140). The flattening filter (150) may be integrated into the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140). In some embodiments, the flattening filter is a separate piece for placement on or in proximity to the bottom surface of the cap system (110). The flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110).

[0305] In some embodiments, the flattening filter is constructed from a material that is formable and has structural integrity. In some embodiments, the flattening filter is constructed from a material comprising a polymer, metal, a metal alloy, a ceramic, glass, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer is a plastic. In some embodiments, the polymer is high impact polystyrene (HIPS). In some embodiments, the metal or metal alloy comprises titanium. In some embodiments, the outer surface of the flattening filter is biocompatible. In some embodiments, the outer surface of the flattening filter is sterilizable.

[0306] In some embodiments, the flattening filter is annular, dome shaped, disc-shaped, a round disc, rectangular or cuboidal, a flattened dome, terraced, a truncated pyramid, a truncated cone, or trapezoidal, tier-shaped (e.g., wedding cake-shaped), or rounded tier-shaped, bean shaped, kidney shaped, or any other appropriate shape. In certain embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is a combination of two or more pieces. In certain embodiments, the combination of two or more pieces comprises pieces constructed from different material. In certain embodiments, the combination of two or more pieces comprises pieces constructed from different sizes. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned configurations of flattening filters.

[0307] In some embodiments, the flattening filter is annular and has an inner diameter and an outer diameter and a thickness as measured from a flattening filter top surface to a flattening filter bottom surface.

[0308] In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.01 to 1 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.01 to 1.5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.05 to 0.1 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.1 to 1 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 2 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 3 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 4 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 6 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) of 0.4 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 0.05 to 3 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness) from 1 to 5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is 0.5 mm in thickness (or the thickest part has a thickness of 0.5 mm).

[0309] In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an inner diameter from 1 to 6 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an inner diameter of 1 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an inner diameter of 2 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an inner diameter of 3 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an inner diameter of 4 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an inner diameter of 5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an inner diameter of 6 mm.

[0310] In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has a diameter, e.g., an outer diameter from 1 to 6 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has a diameter, e.g., an outer diameter from 2 to 5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter from 2 to 6 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter from 5 to 9 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter from 2 to 9 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an outer diameter of 3 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has a diameter, e.g., an outer diameter of 4 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter has an outer diameter of 5 mm. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter of 6 mm. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions. In certain embodiments, the flattening filter has a diameter of 3 mm and a thickness of 0.05 mm. In certain embodiments, the flattening filter has an outer diameter of 3.5 mm, an inner diameter of 2 mm, and a thickness of 0.05 mm.

[0311] In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a concave surface. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a convex surface. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying thickness. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying density. In some embodiments, the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and is constructed from a combination of two or more materials having different densities, different thicknesses, or a combination thereof.

[0312] The present invention also includes an interface comprising a layer of material (112), which may correspond to the bottom surface of the cap system, wherein the layer of material (112) has a top surface and a bottom surface. A flattening filter (150) may be disposed on or in the layer of material (112). The flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with or in proximity to the layer of material (112) thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the RBS and layer of material (112).

[0313] The present invention also includes a side wall cap system, e.g,. the side wall of the cap system, comprising a side wall (115), e.g., cylindrical or other shape that is appropriate for the RBS, constructed from a dense material, wherein the side wall (115) blocks passage of at least a portion of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the dense material comprises a polymer, a metal, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the dense material comprises a powder or a metal compounded in a polymer. In some embodiments, the system is biocompatible. In some embodiments, the outer surface of the system is biocompatible. In some embodiments, the system is sterilizable.

[0314] In some embodiments, the side wall cap system has a side wall (115) constructed from an inner layer and an outer layer, the outer layer is constructed from a material comprising a plastic material, the inner layer is constructed from a material that is more dense than the outer layer, wherein the side wall (115) blocks passage of at least a portion of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the inner layer comprises a polymer, a metal, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the inner layer comprises a powder or a metal compounded in a polymer. In some embodiments, the inner layer is constructed from a material comprising tantalum. In some embodiments, the outer layer is constructed from a plastic material. In some embodiments, the outer layer of the system is biocompatible. In some embodiments, the system is sterilizable. In some embodiments, the inner layer has a thickness of 0.35 mm. In some embodiments, the outer layer has a thickness of 0.5 mm. In some embodiments, the system allows no more than 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS. In some embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that only 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS can pass through. In some embodiments, the system allows no more than 3 Sv to pass through. In some embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that less than 3 Sv can pass through. In some embodiments, the system allows no more than 5 Sv to pass through. In some embodiments, the side wall has a thickness such that less than 5 Sv can pass through.

[0315] In some embodiments, the side wall blocks at least 85% of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the side wall blocks from 90-98% of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the side wall blocks at least 95% of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the side wall blocks at least 97% of radiation from passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the side wall blocks from 95 to 98% of radiation from passing therethrough.

[0316] The cap system and/or the flattening filter and/or the interface and/or the side wall system, etc. of the present invention may be designed based on one or a combination of methods, e.g., based on the results of experiments using, in part, Monte Carlo methods. J. E. Gentle, in International Encyclopedia of Education (Third Edition), 2010 “Monte Carlo Methods in Statistics” states that, “Monte Carlo methods are experiments. Monte Carlo experimentation is the use of simulated random numbers to estimate some functions of a probability distribution.” In a public presentation by K. Nilsen, PhD, Department of Physics and Scientific Computing Group University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway in Spring 2008 “Monte Carlo simulations can be treated as Computer experiments. The results can be analyzed with the same statistics tools we would use in analyzing laboratory experiments.” The Los Alamos Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code (MCNP) “can be used for neutron, photon, electron, or coupled neutron/photon/electron transport. Specific areas of application include, but are not limited to, radiation protection and dosimetry, radiation shielding, radiography, medical physics, nuclear criticality safety, Detector Design and analysis, nuclear oil well logging, Accelerator target design, Fission and fusion reactor design, decontamination and decommissioning.” The “codes can be used to judge whether or not nuclear systems are critical and to determine doses from sources, among other things.”

[0317] The cap system and/or the flattening filter and/or the interface and/or the side wall system, etc. may allow transmission of the radiation in a shape that is optimized for the surgical wound and/or the diameter about that of the bleb. The cap system and/or the flattening filter and/or the interface and/or the side wall system, etc. may comprise intervening material of various transmissive properties that allow for flattening of the dose across the diameter or over the area. By the same method, attenuation of the radiation can also be achieved by varying the surface output of the beta source so that a portion of the surface has a lower output. By the same method, a uniform dose across the diameter (or a substantially uniform dose across the diameter) can be obtained by the summation of the contributions of varying the surface output of the beta source and masking across the diameter (or area).

[0318] Without wishing to limit the present invention to any theory or mechanism, the cap system and/or the flattening filter and/or the interface and/or the side wall system, etc. and/or the output of the beta source may be designed that the intended target tissue (e.g., PTV) is best and most fully treated while also limiting stray dose to the lens and other tissues. The cap system and/or the flattening filter and/or the interface and/or the side wall system, etc. may selectively and variably attenuate the dose across the surface of brachytherapy applicator. The relative attenuation can be achieved by a number of methods including changes in density, or distance, or variable use of materials and thickness that alter the radiation electron mean free path.

[0319] The present invention also features a system comprising two or a combination of devices, systems, or components described herein. For example, the present invention provides a system comprising a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) as described herein (e.g., comprising a capsule (210) having a bottom surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the bottom surface (212), and a side wall (215) and an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), optionally comprising a forceps grip); and a cap system as described herein. The present invention also provides a system comprising a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) as described herein (e.g., a cylindrical capsule (210) having a bottom surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the bottom surface (212), and a side wall (215); and an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the bottom surface (212) of the capsule (210); wherein the capsule is 10.8 mm in diameter, wherein the RBS has an activity of 110 mCi; optionally comprising a forceps grip) and a cap system as described herein, e.g., wherein the system emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system, said portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system being the active surface area (S).

[0320] In some embodiments, doses at all points within T at a depth of are within an 80% isodose contour, 90% isodose contour, or 100% isodose contour. In some embodiments, doses at all points within T at a depth of are within a 70% isodose contour, an 80% isodose contour, 90% isodose contour, or 100% isodose contour. In some embodiments, doses at all points within T at a depth are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Note that depth of the plane or area of the treatment volume is measured from the bottom surface of the cap system of the RBS system. One of ordinary skill in the art understands that dose is defined in a medium such as water, tissue, or plastic water. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.15 to 0.25 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.3 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2. to 0.4 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.5 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.6 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.7 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.8 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 0.9 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1.2 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1.3 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1.4 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1.5 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 1.8 mm. In some embodiments, the depth is from 0.2 to 2 mm.

[0321] In some embodiments, T is 7 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 70% or 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 9 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 7 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 9 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. In some embodiments, T is 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

[0322] In some embodiments, one or more components of the invention (e.g., applicator) are constructed from a material that can further shield the user from the RBS. In some embodiments, a material having a low atomic number (Z) may be used for shielding (e.g., polymethyl methacrylate). In some embodiments, one or more layers of material are used for shielding, wherein an inner layer comprises a material having a low atomic number (e.g., polymethyl methacrylate) and an outer layer comprises lead.

Brachytherapy Applicator

[0323] The present invention also provides brachytherapy applicators for engaging the RBS and/or cap systems described herein. In certain embodiments, the applicator may feature the RBS fixedly attached to the applicator. For example, the applicator may be manufactured such that the RBS is integrated into the applicator prior to distribution or surgical use. In some embodiments, the applicator is manufactured to accept the RBS at a later time. For example, the applicator may be manufactured and distributed, and the RBS may be attached to or inserted into the applicator prior to its use in surgery. In certain embodiments, the applicator is manufactured to engage a cap system, e.g., for containing an RBS therein.

[0324] In certain embodiments, the cap system (110) is attachable to the brachytherapy applicator handle. In some embodiments, the cap system (110) comprises threads (182) for threadably engaging complementary threads (184) of a brachytherapy applicator handle. As shown in FIG. 5E and FIG. 5F, in some embodiments, the cap system (110) comprises prongs (166) for engaging a snap feature on a brachytherapy applicator to attach thereto. The present invention is not limited to any particular mechanism by which the cap is attachable to the brachytherapy applicator handle. FIG. 6A, FIG. 6B, FIG. 6C, and FIG. 6D show non-limiting examples of a system wherein the cap can be threadably connected to the brachytherapy applicator handle. FIG.

[0325] The brachytherapy applicator (e.g., components of the brachytherapy applicator) may be constructed from any appropriate material, such as a biocompatible material or a combination of materials. Non-limiting examples of biocompatible materials include, but are not limited to, metals (for example, stainless steel, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, gold), ceramics and polymers. In certain embodiments, a component of the system or a portion thereof is constructed from a material comprising one or a combination of: stainless steel, titanium, copper, brass, tungsten, tungsten-copper, a metal alloy, or a polymer. In certain embodiments, a component of the system or a portion thereof is constructed from a material comprising a polymer. In certain embodiments, the polymer is one or a combination of: polycarbonate, PEEK, PEI, PET, PETG, ABS, Epoxy, Polyester, Polystyrene, polyurethane, PVDF, Polyimide, HIPS, or Styrene-butadienne rubber. In certain embodiments, a component of the system or a portion thereof is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, gold, a ceramic, a polymer, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, a component of the system or a portion thereof is constructed from a material comprising a synthetic polymer material (e.g., plastic). In certain embodiments, a component of the system or a portion thereof is constructed from a material comprising a metal or metal alloy. The present invention is not limited to the particular materials described herein.

[0326] Generally, the applicator of the present invention may feature a handle and a distal portion at the end (e.g., distal end) of the handle for engaging and/or holding the radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (e.g., radioisotope) and/or the cap system. The distal portion may be integrated into the distal end of the handle. In certain embodiments, the distal portion is removably attachable to the distal end of the handle.

[0327] Referring to FIG. 8A, FIG. 8B, and FIG. 9, in certain embodiments, the applicator and/or the cap system features breakaway features that allow for one-time use of the applicator and/or cap system, e.g., to prevent or impede the cap system (110) and/or the applicator from being used more than one time. FIG. 8A shows a cap system engaged with a handle. The cap system may engage the handle via a variety of mechanisms, e.g., the cap may snap onto, clip onto, twist onto, etc. the handle. FIG. 9 shows breakaway features that help prevent reuse of the cap. For example, in some embodiments, the cap comprises one or more prongs (166) functioning as part of a latching or snapping or clipping mechanism by which the cap engages a handle. The cap also features ribs (168), which may be broken upon disengagement of the cap from the handle.

Target Plane

[0328] The system of the present invention delivers a dose of radiation to a target, e.g., a target plane of a treatment area. FIG. 10A, FIG. 10B, FIG. 10C, and FIG. 10D show examples of a target plane in a treatment area, wherein the target plane is a plane of a particular size (e.g., diameter) at a particular depth (e.g., a distance from the outer surface of the applicator, a distance from the surface of the eye, a distance from the top of the bleb, a distance from the RBS, etc.).

[0329] In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 2 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 3 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 4 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 5 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 6 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 7 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 8 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 9 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 10 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 11 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter of about 12 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 10 to 14 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 6 to 10 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 5 to 12 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 6 to 12 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 8 to 10 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 8 to 12 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 6 to 8 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 7 to 10 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 8 to 11 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 9 to 11 mm. In certain embodiments, the target plane has a diameter from 9 to 12 mm. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions of the target surface.

[0330] Referring again to FIG. 10A, in some embodiments, T is 9.8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 11 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 10 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 9 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is 8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, S is from 10 to 11 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 9 to 10 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 8 to 9 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 7 to 8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 7 to 8 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 2 to 10 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 4 to 11 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 5 to 10 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is from 6 to 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 1 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 2 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 3 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 4 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, T is an area defined within a 5 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. In some embodiments, the dose is uniform across T, e.g., all points are within a particular percentage of the maximum dose in that area, or all points are within a particular percentage of the maximum dose in the treatment volume, etc.

[0331] In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 0 to 700 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc. In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 0 to 100 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc. In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 100 to 200 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc. In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 200 to 400 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc. In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 200 to 600 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc. In certain embodiments, the target plane is a distance from 400 to 600 microns, e.g., from the outer surface of the applicator (e.g., portion of the applicator that contacts the eye tissue), from the surface of the eye, from the top of the bleb, from the RBS, etc.

[0332] Doses recited herein may refer to the doses at a particular depth from the surface of the device, for example at a depth of 0.05 mm, 0.1 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.45 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.55 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.65 mm, 0.7 mm, 0.75 mm, 0.8 mm, etc.

Dosing

[0333] The RBS and/or the RBS system delivers a particular radiation dose to the target, e.g., to a plane within the target (e.g., a plane of a certain size representing a portion of the treatment area (e.g., PTV)). In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1000 cGy (10 Gy) to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 900 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 800 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 750 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 600 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 500 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 400 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 300 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 200 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 100 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 50 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1100 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1200 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1300 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1500 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 600 cGy and 1500 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 50 cGy to 100 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 100 cGy to 150 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 150 cGy to 200 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 200 cGy to 250 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 250 cGy to 300 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 300 cGy to 350 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 350 cGy to 400 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 400 cGy to 450 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 450 cGy to 500 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 500 cGy to 550 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 550 cGy to 600 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 600 cGy to 650 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 650 cGy to 700 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 700 cGy to 750 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 750 cGy to 800 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 800 cGy to 850 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 850 cGy to 900 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 900 cGy to 950 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 950 cGy to 1000 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1000 cGy to 1050 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1050 cGy to 1100 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1100 cGy to 1150 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1150 cGy to 1200 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1200 cGy to 1250 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1250 cGy to 1300 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1300 cGy to 1350 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1350 cGy to 1400 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1400 cGy to 1450 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1450 cGy to 1500 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1500 cGy to 1550 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1550 cGy to 1600 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1600 cGy to 1800 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose from 1800 cGy to 2000 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200,1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, or 1500 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 1500 to 3200 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 3200 to 8000 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of 8000 cGy to 10000 cGy. In some embodiments, the system delivers a radiation dose of greater than 10000 cGy.

[0334] As an example, in some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 90 to 100 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 80 to 90 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 70 to 80 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 60 to 70 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 50 to 60 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 40 to 50 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 50 to 60 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 30 to 40 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 20 to 30 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 50 to 100 cGy/sec. In some embodiments, the dose rate at the surface of the RBS system (that is emitted to the treatment volume) is from 20 to 90 cGy/sec. The present invention is in no way limited to the aforementioned dose rates at the surface (within the diameter of the treatment volume). These values serve as examples only.

[0335] In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 10 seconds to 20 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 20 seconds and 10 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 20 seconds to 60 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 30 seconds to 90 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 60 seconds to 90 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 90 seconds to 2 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 2 minutes to 3 minutes.

[0336] In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 3 minutes to 4 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 3 minutes to 5 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 3 minutes to 6 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 4 minutes to 5 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 4 minutes to 6 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 5 minutes to 6 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 6 minutes to 7 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 7 minutes to 8 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 8 minutes to 9 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 9 minutes to 10 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 10 minutes to 12 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 12 minutes to 15 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time from 15 minutes to 20 minutes.

[0337] In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 5 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 15 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 20 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 25 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 45 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 60 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 90 seconds. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 2 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 3 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 4 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 5 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 6 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 7 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 8 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 9 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 10 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 11 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 12 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 13 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 14 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 15 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 16 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 17 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 18 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 19 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose within 20 minutes. In some embodiments, the RBS and/or RBS system delivers the prescribed dose in a time frame greater than 20 minutes.

[0338] In some embodiments, a dose (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be delivered in a single application. In other embodiments, a dose (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be fractionated and applied in multiple applications. For example, in some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of 2 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of 3 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of 4 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of 5 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of more than 5 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of 20 applications. In some embodiments, radiation (e.g., a prescribed dose) may be applied over the course of more than 20 applications.

[0339] Each application may deliver an equal sub-dose. In some embodiments, one or more of the sub-doses are different. For example, one or more of the sub-doses may be different so as to increase or decrease with each additional application.

[0340] According to one embodiment, a dose of radiation may be applied prior to the treatment procedure, e.g., surgery for implantation of a device, e.g., MIGS device, or other appropriate glaucoma procedure, e.g., MIMS. For example, in some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied one or more days prior to a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device, MIMS, etc.). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied within a 24-hour prior before a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied just prior to a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device, MIMS, etc.), e.g., 1 hour before, 30 minutes before, 15 minutes before, 5 minutes before 1 minute before, etc. In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied during a procedure, e.g., for implantation of a device. In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied right after a surgery (e.g., implantation of a device (e.g., MIGS device), MIMS, etc.), e.g., within 1 minute, 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, etc.). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied before an incision is made into the conjunctiva. In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied after an incision is made into the conjunctiva. In other embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied after a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied within a 24-hour period after a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied within one to two days after a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device). In some embodiments, a dose of radiation may be applied within 2 or more days after a surgery (e.g., insertion of a device). In some embodiments the dose may be applied any time after the glaucoma surgery. In some embodiments, the dose is applied months or years after the glaucoma surgery. For example, a dose may be given to patients that did not receive a dose during surgery but at a future date have scar or needling procedures to break up scar tissue.

Dose Profile

[0341] The unique dose prescription convention traditionally utilized in beta ophthalmic applicator brachytherapy specifies the maximum dose to the center point of the proximal surface. Thompson et al in AAPM recommendations on medical physics practices for ocular plaque brachytherapy: Report of task group 221 states, “Because the dosimetry formalism for planar beta sources is not compatible with the AAPM TG-43 report formalism, the approach to treatment planning differs from that for photon-emitting sources. . . . TG-221 strongly encourages 2D and/or 3D dose calculations.” The unique 1D dose prescription convention utilized in beta ophthalmic applicator brachytherapy specifies the maximum dose to the center point of the proximal surface. The dose to any point radial from the center dose, and/or at any depth in tissue, is a lower dose than the prescribed dose.

[0342] As a non-limiting example, in certain embodiments, the system herein may provide an 80% isodose area that encompasses a diameter of approximately 6 mm defining the Treated Volume (TV) which is the volume of tissue enclosed within a specific isodose envelope, as an example, the 80% isodose. In some embodiments, the Outside Diameter (OD) of the applicator (e.g., system) herein (12 mm) is a larger diameter than the enclosed disk of Sr-90 with an emissive surface diameter, e.g., approximately 8 mm. The TV diameter is further contracted by the edge effect of the active Sr-90 surface and by scatter, this is characterized by a penumbra that intrudes into the diameter of the active surface.

[0343] In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular target plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 10% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 15% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 20% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 25% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 30% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 35% of the maximum dose. In certain embodiments, the dose across the particular plane on or within the target at a particular depth (e.g., a plane of a particular size/diameter within the depth of the treatment area) varies by no more than 40% of the maximum dose.

[0344] In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area at a particular depth is within 10% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area at a particular depth is within 15% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area is within 20% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area at a particular depth is within 25% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area is within 30% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area at a particular depth is within 35% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point on the target plane of the treatment area is within 40% of a dose at any other point on the target plane of the treatment area at that depth.

[0345] Calculation of a maximum dose or average maximum dose is understood to one of ordinary skill in the art. As an example, in some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 100 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 4 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 9 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 16 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 25 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 36 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 49 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 64 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of at least 81 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose. In some embodiments, the average maximum dose is an average of greater than 100 pixels surrounding the pixel having the maximum dose.

[0346] In some embodiments, uniformity is calculated based on a maximum dose, e.g., across the target (e.g., within a diameter of the target volume) at a depth. In some embodiments, uniformity is calculated based on a maximum dose throughout the treatment volume. In some embodiments, uniformity is calculated based on an average maximum dose e.g., across the target (e.g., within a diameter of the target volume) at a depth. In some embodiments, uniformity is calculated based on an average maximum dose within the treatment volume. The present invention is not limited to these means of defining or calculating uniformity.

[0347] FIG. 11A, FIG. 11B, FIG. 12A, FIG. 12B, FIG. 12C, FIG. 12D, FIG. 12E, FIG. 12F, FIG. 12G, FIG. 12H, and FIG. 12I, FIG. 13A, FIG. 13B, FIG. 13C, FIG. 13D, FIG. 14, FIG. 15, FIG. 16A, FIG. 16B, FIG. 17, and FIG. 18 each show theoretical or actual dosimetry results using representative radionuclide brachytherapy sources, and systems, e.g., featuring one of two representative cap systems.

[0348] Referring to FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B, the MCNP modeling of a bare source, the table below shows the dose (normalized as a percentage of the maximum dose) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm. The relative doses are at a radius of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the center. The below percentages are just examples. The present invention is not limited to the numbers shown below. In some embodiments, the percentages below vary by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, etc.

TABLE-US-00001 r (mm) z (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.24 60-64% 85-90% 98-100% 94-96% 90-92% 48-52% 0.56 60-64% 71-76% 78-82%  77-79% 67-71% 38-42%

[0349] Referring to FIG. 11C and FIG. 11D, the MCNP modeling of the system with a caps (HIPS cap), the table below shows the dose (normalized as a percentage of the maximum dose) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm. The relative doses are at a radius of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the center. The below percentages are just examples. The present invention is not limited to the numbers shown below. In some embodiments, the percentages below vary by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, etc.

TABLE-US-00002 r (mm) z (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.24 94-96% 96-97% 98-99% 99-100% 88-91% 57-60% 0.56 81-83% 80-81% 82-84% 80-82%  68-72% 44-46%

[0350] In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.24 mm is within 70 to 100% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.24 mm is within 75 to 100% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.24 mm is within 80 to 100% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.56 mm is within 70-85% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.56 mm is within 65-90% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume. In certain embodiments, the dose at any point within an 8 mm diameter of the treatment volume at depth of about 0.56 mm is within 60-90% of the maximum dose to the treatment volume.

[0351] Referring to FIG. 12A, FIG. 12B, and FIG. 12C, the dosimetry of a system without a cap, the table below shows the dose (normalized as a percentage of the maximum dose) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm. The relative doses are at a radius of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the center.

[0352] The below percentages are just examples. The present invention is not limited to the numbers shown below. In some embodiments, the percentages below vary by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, etc.

TABLE-US-00003 r (mm) z (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.19 67-69 90-100 85-92 80-84 72-76 42-45 0.46 60-61 67-70  63-67 60-64 56-59 31-44 0.67 55-56 58-62  59-62 56-58 49-53 28-29 0.94 53-55 53-56  50-53 46-49 40-42 25-27 1.51 38-40 27-29  35-38 33-35 29-31 19-22 1.99 28-30 27-30  25-29 23-35 18-20 12-14

[0353] Referring to FIG. 12D, FIG. 12E, and FIG. 12F, the system with the HIPS cap, the table below shows the dose (normalized as a percentage of the maximum dose) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm. The relative doses are at a radius of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the center. The below percentages are just examples. The present invention is not limited to the numbers shown below. In some embodiments, the percentages below vary by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, etc.

TABLE-US-00004 r (mm) z (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.19 94-96 99-100 90-94 85-87 76-82 50-68 0.67 68-72 69-71  65-66 61-63 55-56 38-42 0.94 59-61 57-59  55-56 50-53 40-48 26-36 1.99 31-33 31-33  29-31 27-28 23-25 15-18

[0354] Referring to FIG. 12G, FIG. 12H, and FIG. 12I, the system with the titanium cap, the table below shows the dose (normalized as a percentage of the maximum dose) at a depth of 0.24 mm and 0.56 mm. The relative doses are at a radius of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the center. The below percentages are just examples. The present invention is not limited to the numbers shown below. In some embodiments, the percentages below vary by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, etc.

TABLE-US-00005 r (mm) z (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.19 86-88 92-98 77-79 78-80 80-85 50-68 0.67 66-68 64-66 56-60 55-59 56-59 40-45 0.94 58-60 56-58 53-54 52-53 50-51 35-38 1.99 31-33 31-32 29-31 27-29 24-26 15-20

[0355] FIG. 13A, FIG. 13B, FIG. 13C, and FIG. 13C each show data from FIG. 12 wherein each is a graph of the depth and a comparison of the systems.

Kits

[0356] The present invention also features kits comprising one or more components of the brachytherapy systems of the present invention. For example, in some embodiments, the kit comprises a cap system. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a brachytherapy applicator, e.g., the applicator without the RBS. In certain embodiments, the kit may comprise the applicator, e.g., a handle, and a cap system for engaging the handle once the RBS is inside the cap system. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a beta radiation source (e.g., RBS) and a brachytherapy applicator. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a portion of the components of the brachytherapy applicator. In some embodiments, the kit further comprises a radiation attenuation shield. In certain embodiments, the radiation attenuation shield is integrated into the cap system.

[0357] In some embodiments, the kit comprises a brachytherapy applicator (e.g., the handle portion and the cap system) and an implant for trans-scleral insertion (e.g., an implant for trans-scleral insertion that forms a bleb in the subconjunctival space of the eye (or forms a bleb in the space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule). In some embodiments, the kit comprises a brachytherapy applicator (e.g., the handle portion and the cap system), a radionuclide brachytherapy source, and an implant for trans-scleral insertion (e.g., an implant for trans-scleral insertion that forms a bleb in the subconjunctival space of the eye (or forms a bleb in the space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule). For example, in certain embodiments, the handle and cap are provided in a kit packaged with a MIGS drainage device.

[0358] In some embodiments, the kit is for single use. The kit may be provided in sterile packaging.

Methods

[0359] The systems and devices of the present invention may be used for a variety of methods. Non-limiting examples of methods of use of the systems and devices herein include methods for applying beta radiation to a target of the eye, for example the site of a bleb formed by a MIGS implant or procedure. Other methods include methods of inhibiting or fibrogenesis or inhibiting or reducing inflammation in a bleb or hole associated with a MIGS implant or procedure, a trabeculectomy, a MIMS procedure, etc.

[0360] As an example, the systems and devices of the present invention provide for a method of treating glaucoma drainage procedure conjunctival blebs with a substantially uniform dose of beta therapy, e.g., a substantially uniform dose of beta therapy across a diameter of about 10 mm, 9 mm, 8 mm, 7 mm, 6 mm, 5 mm, etc.

[0361] Other methods include methods to maintain the function of a bleb, methods to enhance the function of a MIGS implant, e.g., by maintaining a functional bleb, methods to enhance the success of MIMS, methods for repairing a failed trabeculectomy, methods for repairing a failed MIMS, methods to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP), methods to maintain a healthy IOP, methods for treating glaucoma, etc.

[0362] The methods herein comprise applying beta radiation to a target area of the eye. In some embodiments, the target area is a site of the bleb or an expected site of the bleb. (Note that the target is not limited to a bleb or a portion of a bleb.) In some embodiments, the target area surrounds the end of an implant. In some embodiments, the target is from 2 to 5 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the target is from 5 to 12 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the target is from 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm in thickness. In some embodiments, the target is from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm in thickness. In some embodiments, the target is from 0.1 mm to 0.6 mm in thickness. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned dimensions of the target.

[0363] In some embodiments, the method comprises applying the beta radiation prior to a particular surgical procedure, e.g., prior to insertion of a MIGS implant, prior to incision of the conjunctive, prior to creation of a hole associated with MIMS, etc. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying the beta radiation after a particular surgical procedure.

[0364] The present invention features methods for inhibiting or reducing fibrogenesis and inflammation in a bleb of an eye being treated for glaucoma. The present invention also provides methods for maintaining a functioning drainage bleb in the eye of a patient being treated for glaucoma. The present invention also features a method of treating glaucoma. The present invention also features a method of reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) in an eye. The present invention also features a method of reducing inflammation in an eye having a foreign body therein (e.g., the foreign body may be a Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS) implant inserted between an anterior chamber of the eye and a subconjunctival space of the eye or between the anterior chamber of the eye and a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule), wherein the implant causes formation of a bleb for draining aqueous humor.

[0365] The methods feature applying a therapeutic amount of beta radiation from a radioisotope to a target area of the eye using an applicator system, as described herein.

[0366] The beta radiation may be effective for reducing an Intraocular Pressure (IOP) of the eye, the beta radiation may be effective for treating glaucoma, the beta radiation may cause cell cycle arrest in fibroblasts on the Tenon's capsule to inhibit or reduce the fibrotic process and inflammation that leads to bleb failure, the beta radiation may reduce or inhibit a fibrotic process and inflammation that causes bleb failure, the beta radiation may help to effectively maintain the drainage function of the bleb.

[0367] In some embodiments, the method comprises implanting a Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS) implant within the eye, wherein the implant causes formation of a bleb (e.g., in the subconjunctival space of the eye, in a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule); the bleb functions to drain aqueous humor. In certain embodiments, the implant is inserted trans-sclerally, between an anterior chamber of the eye and a subconjunctival space of the eye, between the anterior chamber of the eye and a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule, etc.

[0368] In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise introducing a drug to a site, e.g., a site of the MIGS implant, a site of the bleb, a different part of the eye.

[0369] As previously discussed, ionizing radiation has effects on cells that can lead to cell cycle arrest. In some embodiments, the beta radiation of the present invention causes cell cycle arrest in fibroblasts on or associated with the Tenon's capsule or conjunctiva so as to inhibit or reduce the fibrotic process and inflammation that leads to bleb failure.

[0370] As previously discussed, the beta radiation may be applied via a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS). The RBS may be applied to the target via an applicator. As previously discussed, in some embodiments, the RBS provides a dose of about 750 cGy to the target. In some embodiments, the RBS provides a dose from 500 to 1000 cGy to the target.

[0371] The present invention also features methods for preparing an applicator for emitting beta radiation. In some embodiments, the method comprises inserting a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) into an applicator, e.g., an appropriate place or cavity in the applicator. In some embodiments, the method comprises attaching the RBS to an applicator.

[0372] In some embodiments, the systems and devices of the present invention may be used for methods associated with needling procedures, e.g., procedures to the bleb to free or remove scar tissue and/or cystic structures in and/or around the bleb and/or surgery site that may later arise from wound healing or scarring or inflammatory responses to the glaucoma surgery. Needling procedures may affect surgical site morphology, restore the function of the surgery and/or lower the IOP.

[0373] Without wishing to limit the present invention to any theory or mechanism, it is believed that treating scar tissue formation on a bleb formed by a trabeculectomy procedure is different than treating a newly-created (and scar tissue-free) bleb at the time of the trabeculectomy. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy concomitant with a needling procedure to a bleb formed by a trabeculectomy procedure. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a trabeculectomy bleb that has formed scar tissue. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a bleb in the eye of a trabeculectomy patient where the intraocular pressure (IOP) has increased. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a bleb where the trabeculectomy is failing or has failed. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a bleb in a second trabeculectomy, where the first trabeculectomy has failed.

[0374] In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a bleb that is failing or has failed. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a MIGS device bleb that is failing or has failed. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a MIGS device bleb that has formed scar tissue. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying beta therapy to a bleb in the eye of a MIGS device patient where the intraocular pressure (IOP) has increased.

[0375] In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying another drug in addition to beta radiation to the eye, e.g., to the target, to an area near the target, etc. As a non-limiting example, the methods may further comprise administering pharmaceutical eyedrops or an anti-metabolite (e.g., a liquid anti-metabolite). In various embodiments, the drug may be administered before, during, or after the surgical implantation procedure. In some embodiments, the methods herein comprise applying another antimetabolite (e.g., mitomycin-c or 5-fluorouracil) in addition to beta radiation. In some embodiments, the methods comprise administering pharmaceutical eye drops or a liquid anti-metabolite or other liquid drug. In some embodiments, the drug is administered before, during, and/or after a surgical procedure.

[0376] The systems and devices (and methods) of the present invention may also be applied to wound healing, e.g., wounds in the eye due to foreign body insertion, trauma, ocular surface wounds, etc. One model of wound healing divides the process into hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. The first phase of hemostasis begins immediately after wounding, with vascular constriction and fibrin clot formation. The clot and surrounding wound tissue release pro-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Once bleeding is controlled, inflammatory cells migrate into the wound and promote the inflammatory phase, which is characterized by the sequential infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes. In the early wound, macrophages release cytokines that promote the inflammatory response by recruiting and activating additional leukocytes. As macrophages clear these apoptotic cells, they undergo a phenotypic transition to a reparative state that stimulates keratinocytes, fibroblasts, and angiogenesis to promote tissue regeneration. T-lymphocytes migrate into wounds following the inflammatory cells and macrophages, and peak during the late-proliferative/early-remodeling phase. T-cells regulate many aspects of wound healing, including maintaining tissue integrity, defending against pathogens, and regulating inflammation. The proliferative phase generally follows and overlaps with the inflammatory phase, and is characterized by epithelial proliferation and migration over the provisional matrix within the wound (re-epithelialization). In the reparative dermis, fibroblasts and endothelial cells are the most prominent cell types present and support capillary growth, collagen formation, and the formation of granulation tissue at the site of injury. Within the wound bed, fibroblasts produce collagen as well as glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans, which are major components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Following robust proliferation and ECM synthesis, wound healing enters the final remodeling phase, which can last for years.

[0377] The radiation attenuation masks of the present invention reduce to acceptable medical practice the use of beta irradiation in trabeculectomy as a competitive first-choice therapy. This may be achieved both by: (1) the beta radiation source output is optimized to the Planning Treatment Volume(s) specific to the trabeculectomy surgical wound and bleb, and (2) minimizing stray dose to the lens, and thus empowering decreases in the side effects of induced cataract that otherwise limits selection of this treatment modality.

[0378] Of note, by convention dose variation is described as that across the diameter assuming a central point maximum dose. However, in practice it has been demonstrated that the maximum dose may be off center. Thus, the description of dose across the diameter may also include the variation of dose over the area.

[0379] As previously discussed, the present invention provides therapeutic doses of beta radiation, e.g., optimized doses of beta radiation, modified therapeutic doses of beta radiation, etc. The systems and devices of the present invention provide a relatively uniform dose across at least a portion of the target area, e.g., as described herein.

[0380] For example, the present invention also features a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) system that emits beta radiation for use in a method of treating glaucoma. In some embodiments, the method comprises performing a glaucoma drainage surgery on an eye of a patient to form a bleb in a subconjunctival space or between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule, and to allow aqueous humor to drain into the bleb; and applying a modified therapeutic dose of beta radiation from the RBS system to a target area associated with the bleb, a drainage channel, a drainage implant, or a combination thereof.

[0381] The present invention also features a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) system that emits beta radiation for use in a method of treating glaucoma (e.g., for helping to lower IOP). In some embodiments, the method comprises performing a glaucoma drainage surgery on an eye of a patient to form a bleb in a subconjunctival space or between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule, and to allow aqueous humor to drain into the bleb; and applying a modified therapeutic dose of beta radiation from the RBS system to a target area associated with the bleb, a drainage channel, a drainage implant, or a combination thereof.

[0382] The present invention also features a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) system that emits beta radiation for use in a method of treating glaucoma (e.g., for helping to lower IOP). In some embodiments, the method comprises performing a glaucoma drainage surgery on an eye of a patient to form a bleb in a subconjunctival space or between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule, and to allow aqueous humor to drain into the bleb; and applying a modified therapeutic dose of beta radiation from the RBS system to a target area associated with the bleb, a drainage channel, a drainage implant, or a combination thereof.

[0383] The present invention also features a method of reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) in an eye being treated or having been treated with glaucoma drainage surgery to form a bleb in a subconjunctival space or between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule and to allow aqueous humor to drain into the drainage bleb. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying a modified therapeutic amount of beta radiation from a radionuclide brachytherapy (RBS) system to a target area associated with the bleb, a drainage channel, a drainage implant, or a combination thereof.

[0384] The present invention also features a method of treating glaucoma (e.g., to help effectively lower IOP, etc.), wherein the method comprises performing a glaucoma drainage surgery in an eye (e.g., MIGS, MIMS, trabeculectomy) to form a bleb in a subconjunctival space or between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule and to allow aqueous humor to drain into the drainage bleb; and applying a modified therapeutic amount of beta radiation from a radionuclide brachytherapy (RBS) system to a target area associated with the bleb, a drainage channel, a drainage implant, or a combination thereof.

[0385] In some embodiments, the methods herein are effective for lowering intraocular pressure (IOP). In some embodiments, the therapeutic amount of beta radiation helps maintain a functioning drainage bleb. In some embodiments, the therapeutic amount of beta radiation helps reduce conjunctival inflammation.

[0386] The present invention features methods for inhibiting or reducing fibrogenesis and inflammation in a bleb of an eye being treated for glaucoma. The present invention also provides methods for maintaining a functioning drainage bleb in the eye of a patient being treated for glaucoma. The present invention also features a method of treating glaucoma. The present invention also features a method of reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) in an eye. The present invention also features a method of reducing inflammation in an eye having a foreign body therein (e.g., the foreign body may be a Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS) implant inserted between an anterior chamber of the eye and a subconjunctival space of the eye or between the anterior chamber of the eye and a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule), wherein the implant causes formation of a bleb for draining aqueous humor.

[0387] The methods feature applying a therapeutic amount of beta radiation from a radioisotope to a target area of the eye using an applicator system, as described herein.

[0388] The beta radiation may be effective for reducing an Intraocular Pressure (IOP) of the eye, the beta radiation may be effective for treating glaucoma, the beta radiation may cause cell cycle arrest in fibroblasts on the Tenon's capsule to inhibit or reduce the fibrotic process and inflammation that leads to bleb failure, the beta radiation may reduce or inhibit a fibrotic process and inflammation that causes bleb failure, the beta radiation may help to effectively maintain the drainage function of the bleb.

[0389] In some embodiments, the method comprises implanting a Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS) implant within the eye, wherein the implant causes formation of a bleb (e.g., in the subconjunctival space of the eye, in a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule); the bleb functions to drain aqueous humor. In certain embodiments, the implant is inserted trans-sclerally, between an anterior chamber of the eye and a subconjunctival space of the eye, between the anterior chamber of the eye and a space between the conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule, etc.

[0390] In certain embodiments, the RBSs and systems herein are used to provide dose fractionation, wherein the RBS or system is rotated a certain number of times over the course of the application. This may help provide for a more even distribution of radiation.

[0391] In some embodiments, the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, the distance from the outer surface of the distal end of the applicator system and the bottom surface of the bleb is substantially uniform across the target area.

[0392] In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 50% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 60% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 70% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 80% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 90% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 95% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye. In some embodiments, when the applicator system is placed in contact with the eye at the target area and pressed upon, at least 99% of the surface area of the outer surface of the distal end is in contact with the eye.

EXAMPLE 1

Surgical Procedure for Beta Radiation Application

[0393] The present invention provides an example of a procedure for the application of beta radiation to the eye. The present invention is in no way limited to the specific steps, methods, devices, systems, and compositions described herein.

Preparation and Assembly

[0394] The device assembly procedure may be done behind a plexiglass beta shield (for example, the Large Dual Angle Beta Radiation Shield, Universal Medical Inc.). The medical technician or medical physicist or other user opens the Radioisotope Brachytherapy Source (RBS) storage container. The RBS is removed from its container using appropriate handling techniques (for example, long forceps). The RBS is placed on a clean field.

[0395] The Brachytherapy Applicator may be a single-use sterile-packed device. Its packaging may be checked by examining for damage or breach of the sterile barrier. If finding none, the Brachytherapy Applicator package is opened, and the applicator assembly placed on a sterile field.

[0396] The Brachytherapy Applicator comprises a handle and an RBS cap. Using aseptic technique and remote handling techniques, the RBS is loaded into the Brachytherapy Applicator, e.g., the RBS may be inserted into the cap and the handle is subsequently connected to the cap, securing the RBS. Care is taken to avoid contamination.

[0397] The radiation output may be confirmed consistent with standards of quality assurance in radiation therapy (for example see: Palmer, Antony L., Andrew Nisbet, and David Bradley. “Verification of high dose rate brachytherapy dose distributions with EBT3 Gafchromic film quality control techniques.” Physics in medicine and biology 58.3 (2013): 497). In one method of quality assurance, the applicator is applied to radiographic film in sterile overwrap for a specified dwell time (for example Gafchromic® film, Ashland Inc.). The overwrap is removed. The medical physicist checks the area of application for evidence of film exposure.

[0398] The device may be placed into a sterile plexiglass beta transport box (for example the IBI Beta-Gard Acrylic Storage Container—Large, Universal Medical Inc.) and the box placed on the operative Mayo stand.

[0399] Previously the decayed activity of the RBS has been calculated to determine the contemporary dose per unit time (for example, cGy/second). The decay calculation methodology is known to those skilled in medical physics and is also described in the NRC Information Notice 96-66: United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, Washington D.C. 20555, Dec. 13, 1996. The dwell time for the total prescribed dose is then calculated. As an example, the prescription dose is 1,000 cGy to a center point of 0.19 mm depth from the conjunctival surface. As an example, the decayed activity of the RBS is 30 cGy/second at a water equivalent depth of 0.19 mm. In this example, the dwell time is calculated to be about 33 seconds, providing a 990 cGy dose.

Surgical Application

[0400] The beta therapy may be applied following completion of a glaucoma surgery. (Note the present invention is not limited to applying beta radiation after glaucoma surgery.) The eye is rotated to a downward gaze position by the use of a probe placed against the sclera providing traction (for example the distal end of a Vera Hook placed against the eye). This allows better visual and surgical access to the superior conjunctiva.

[0401] The ophthalmic surgeon obtains the Brachytherapy Applicator device, e.g., from the transport box. The tip (e.g., distal end, active end) of the applicator is placed over the conjunctiva in a position just superior to the limbus. The diameter of the applicator encompasses the appropriate surface area of the target, e.g., bleb. The Brachytherapy Applicator is pressed to the surface of the eye. In some embodiments, the Brachytherapy Applicator is pressed to the surface of the eye such that all or substantially all of the edema fluid is pushed away. The Applicator is held in place for the specified dwell time. In some embodiments, the dwell time has been programmed into a count-down clock. Following the specified dwell time, the Brachytherapy Applicator is removed from the operative field.

[0402] At the conclusion of surgery, antibiotic ointment is applied to the eye and the eye patched.

[0403] In certain embodiments, following the surgery, the Brachytherapy Applicator is disassembled behind the acrylic beta shield. The Radioisotope Brachytherapy Source is returned to its storage container. The disposable portions of the device are discarded in a manner consistent with appropriate disposal of biological waste (for example “red bag” waste).

EXAMPLE 2

Application of Beta Radiation

[0404] The present invention provides an example of the application of beta radiation to the eye. The present invention is in no way limited to the specific steps, methods, devices, systems, and compositions described herein.

Assembly and Disassembly

[0405] Using aseptic technique, insert the beta radiation source (which may be connected to an applicator) into the cavity of the cap system, taking care not to cross-contaminate the outer surface of the cap system with the beta radiation source and/or attached applicator.

[0406] Apply vertical force down until the cap system is seated fully, and an audible click is heard.

[0407] Verify the cap system is securely attached by visual inspection. Inspect that the source is fully seated in the cap system.

[0408] To dissemble the cap system and beta radiation source after a procedure is complete, using forceps, place the prongs on either side of the attached applicator handle on the cap system ledge perimeter.

[0409] Using the forceps to apply downward force on the cap system, pull the applicator with beta radiation source up until the cap system and beta radiation source separate. As soon as separation occurs stop pulling. The top of the source will hit the bottom of the forceps—ensure the force applied is not excessive.

[0410] Remove the beta radiation source from the cap system.

Use

[0411] With the cap system affixed, the beta radiation source dose rate is decreased. The time required to deliver a specific dose (dwell time) will increase compared to the dwell time of the beta radiation source without the cap system affixed.

[0412] The medical physicist or responsible person verifies the relative dose distribution and absolute dose rate of the beta radiation source as modified by the cap system, according to established protocols.

[0413] The operator may find the dwell time to be on the order of 2.5×, 3×, 3.5×, etc. the previous dwell time for the beta radiation source alone. This safety-check time factor is not to be used for patient treatment planning.

[0414] In certain embodiments, the application of the beta radiation source with the cap system be fractionated. For example, in some embodiments, the application is fractionated into 4×¼ dwell time serial applications, each with an incremental 90-degree rotation. The operator may advance the rotation without lifting the applicator off the application site. Clinical experience has demonstrated that some original equipment manufacturer (OEM) supplied beta radiation sources wherein the maximum dose rate is not necessarily centered on the device axis. For such beta radiation sources, the off-axis dose rate maximum interaction with the cap system central attenuation feature may produce an off-axis area of maximum dose rate. The rotational application spreads the off-axis maximum dose-rate over the intermediary circumference, thus providing a more uniform dose delivery.

[0415] Following physician practice, internal institutional procedures and surgical instructions, place the cap system on the treatment application site for the predetermined length of time and in the predetermined manner (e.g., fractionation).

EXAMPLE 3

Cap System

[0416] The present invention provides an example of the cap system of the present invention. The present invention is in no way limited to the specific steps, methods, devices, systems, and compositions described herein.

[0417] In certain embodiments, the cap system comprises grade 5 titanium (Ti6Al4V). In certain embodiments, the cap system has a radius of 16.5 mm, including the lip/flange (120). In certain embodiments, the cap system has a radius of 14.4 mm, not including the lip/flange (120). In certain embodiments, the cap system has a height of 8.2 mm. The cap system is biocompatible. The cap system may be sterilized using autoclave methods or other appropriate sterilization techniques.

[0418] The cap system features an attenuation feature in the cap's distal face. This helps allow for modification of the native radiation output of the radiation source.

[0419] In certain embodiments, the cap system features an internal circumferential channel allowing the source to be appropriately placed, e.g., snapped into place.

[0420] In certain embodiments, the cap system reduces the central dose by approximately 60-70% (relative to the native output of the radiation source). In some embodiments, the cap system broadens the clinically useful dose area (relative to the native output of the radiation source).

[0421] Various modifications of the invention, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description. Such modifications are also intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. Each reference cited in the present application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0422] As used herein, the term “about” may refer to plus or minus 10% of the referenced number, or a number within a range that would be considered equivalent to the recited value by one of ordinary skill in the art.

Embodiments

[0423] The following embodiments are intended to be illustrative only and not to be limiting in any way.

Embodiment Set A

[0424] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0425] Embodiment A1: A radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) comprising: a capsule (210) having a distal surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the distal surface (212), and a side wall (215); and an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the distal surface (212) of the capsule (210). Embodiment A2: Wherein the capsule is cylindrical. Embodiment A3: wherein the capsule is kidney-shaped.

[0426] Embodiment A4: wherein the side wall (215) extends upwardly past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. Embodiment A5: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) is any source of beta radiation. Embodiment A6: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) comprises Strontium-90 (Sr-90), Phosphorus-32 (P-32), Ruthenium 106 (Ru-106), Yttrium 90 (Y-90), Strontium-90 in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90, an isotope of cesium, I-125, or a combination thereof. Embodiment A7: wherein the active beta radioisotope material comprises Strontium-90 in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90. Embodiment A8: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) is any source of gamma or x-ray or Bremsstrahlung radiation that provides radiation is attenuated by matter with similar linear energy transfer as beta radiation. Embodiment A9: wherein the capsule is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel, gold, platinum, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, silver, tin, zinc, copper, nickel, aluminum, a ceramic, glass, a metal alloy, zirconium, or a combination thereof. Embodiment A10: wherein the capsule is from 2 to 12 mm in diameter. Embodiment A11: wherein the capsule is 10.8 mm in diameter. Embodiment Embodiment A12: wherein the RBS has an activity from 10 to 120 mCi, or from 3.7 to 4.4 GBq. Embodiment A13: wherein the RBS has an activity up to 300 mCi. Embodiment A14: wherein the RBS has an activity 5 11.1GBq. Embodiment A15: wherein the RBS has an activity of 116 mCi or 4.292 GBq. Embodiment A16: wherein the RBS has an activity of 50 mCi or 4.292 GBq. Embodiment A17: wherein the RBS has an activity of 58 mCi or 4.292 GBq.

[0427] Embodiment A18: further comprising a forceps grip (230) disposed in or on the proximal surface (211) of the capsule that is engageable with a pair of prongs or forceps to allow the RBS to be picked up. Embodiment A19: wherein the forceps grip (230) is an indicator to a user and allows the RBS to be picked up preferentially only by the proximal surface (211). Embodiment A20: wherein the forceps grip (230) prevents the RBS from being inserted into a cap system in an unintended orientation. Embodiment A21: wherein the RBS is a sealed radiological or radioactive source. Embodiment A22: wherein the RBS emits a beta radiation from a treatment surface to a treatment volume, the treatment volume having a diameter of 8 mm; the RBS system has a dosimetry profile such that: all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at the treatment surface have a dose rate of 55-85 cGy/sec, all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 0.6 mm have a dose rate of 45-55 cGy/sec, all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 1 mm have a dose rate of 35-48 cGy/sec, and all points across the diameter of the treatment volume at a depth of 2 mm have a dose rate of 17-25 cGy/sec.

[0428] Embodiment A23: a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) comprising: a capsule (210) having a distal surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the distal surface (212), and a side wall (215); an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the distal surface (212) of the capsule (210); and a forceps grip (230) disposed in or on the proximal surface (211) of the capsule that is engageable with a pair of prongs or forceps to allow the RBS to be picked up. Embodiment A24: wherein the forceps grip (230) prevents the RBS from being inserted into a cap system in an unintended orientation. Embodiment A25: wherein the side wall (215) and the forceps grip (230) extend past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. Embodiment A26: wherein the forceps grip (230) extends past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. Embodiment A27: wherein the forceps grip (230) has at least a first side and a second side opposite the first side, wherein only the first side and second side can be gripped by forceps. Embodiment A28: wherein the forceps grip (230) has at least a first side, a second side opposite the first side, and a third side, wherein the third side cannot be gripped by forceps. Embodiment A29: the forceps grip (230) is recessed into the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. Embodiment A30: wherein the forceps grip (230) protrudes from the proximal surface (211) of the capsule.

[0429] Embodiment A31: wherein the forceps grip has a first side (231a) and a second side (231b) opposite the first side (231a), wherein a first indentation (232) is disposed at an intersection of the first side (231a) and the proximal surface (211) of the capsule (210) and a second indentation (232) is disposed at an intersection of the second side (231b) and the proximal surface (211) of the capsule (210). Embodiment A32: wherein the forceps grip (230) is a ring. Embodiment A33: wherein the forceps grip (230) is a protruding threaded design. Embodiment A34: wherein the ring is for engaging with a threaded pole. Embodiment A35: wherein the capsule is cylindrical. Embodiment A36: wherein the capsule is kidney-shaped. Embodiment A37: wherein the side wall (215) extends upwardly past the proximal surface (211) of the capsule. Embodiment A38: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) is any source of beta radiation. Embodiment A39: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) comprises Strontium-90 (Sr-90), Phosphorus-32 (P-32), Ruthenium 106 (Ru-106), Yttrium 90 (Y-90), Strontium-90 in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90, an isotope of cesium, I-125, or a combination thereof. Embodiment A40: wherein the active beta radioisotope material comprises Strontium-90 in secular equilibrium with Yttrium 90. Embodiment A41: wherein the active beta radioisotope material (220) is any source of gamma or x-ray or Bremsstrahlung radiation that provides radiation is attenuated by matter with similar linear energy transfer as beta radiation. Embodiment A42: wherein the active beta radioisotope material is any source of radiation that provides beta radiation or radiation that is attenuated by matter with similar linear energy transfer as beta radiation. Embodiment A43: wherein the capsule is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel, gold, platinum, titanium, tantalum, titanium alloy, silver, tin, zinc, copper, nickel, aluminum, a ceramic, glass, a metal alloy, zirconium, or a combination thereof. Embodiment A44: the capsule is from 2 to 12 mm in diameter. Embodiment A45: wherein the capsule is 10.8 mm in diameter. Embodiment A46: wherein the RBS has an activity from 10 to 120 mCi, or from 3.7 to 4.4 GBq. Embodiment A47: wherein the RBS has an activity of 116 mCi or 4.292 GBq. Embodiment A48: wherein the RBS is a sealed radiological or radioactive source.

Embodiment Set B

[0430] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0431] Embodiment B1: An interface for a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the interface comprising a layer of material (112) having a top surface and a bottom surface, wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on or in the layer of material (112), the flattening filter being annular and having an inner diameter and an outer diameter and a thickness as measured from a flattening filter top surface to a flattening filter bottom surface, the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with or in proximity to the layer of material (112) thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the RBS and layer of material (112).

[0432] Embodiment B1:wherein the flattening filter (150) has a thickness from 0.1 to 1 mm. Embodiment B2: wherein the flattening filter (150) is 0.4 mm in thickness. Embodiment B3: wherein the flattening filter (150) is 0.5 mm in thickness. Embodiment B4: wherein the flattening filter (150) has an inner diameter from 1 to 6 mm. Embodiment B5: wherein the flattening filter (150) has an inner diameter of 3 mm. Embodiment B6: wherein the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter from 2 to 6 mm. Embodiment B7: wherein the flattening filter (150) has an outer diameter of 6 mm.

[0433] Embodiment B8: An interface for a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the interface comprising a layer of material (112) having a top surface and a bottom surface, wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on or in the layer of material (112), the flattening filter being annular, dome shaped, disc-shaped, a flattened dome, a truncated pyramid, a truncated cone, or trapezoidal, the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with or in proximity to the layer of material (112) thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the RBS and layer of material (112). Embodiment B9: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a concave surface. Embodiment B10: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a convex surface. Embodiment B11: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying thickness. Embodiment B12: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying density. Embodiment B13: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and is constructed from a combination of two or more materials having different densities, different thicknesses, or a combination thereof.

Embodiment Set C

[0434] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0435] Embodiment C1: A flattening filter for reducing radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with the flattening filter or in proximity to the flattening filter, said flattening filter being annular and having a thickness of 0.5 mm as measured from a flattening filter top surface to a flattening filter bottom surface, an inner diameter of 3 mm, and an outer diameter of 6 mm. Embodiment C2: wherein the flattening filter is constructed from a material that is formable and has structural integrity. Embodiment C3: wherein the flattening filter is constructed from a material comprising a polymer, metal, a metal alloy, a ceramic, glass, or a combination thereof. Embodiment C4: wherein the polymer is a plastic. Embodiment C5: wherein the polymer is high impact polystyrene (HIPS). Embodiment C6: wherein the metal or metal alloy comprises titanium. Embodiment C7: wherein an outer surface of the flattening filter is biocompatible. Embodiment C8: wherein an outer surface of the flattening filter is sterilizable.

[0436] Embodiment C9: A flattening filter for reducing radiation emitted from an RBS in contact with the flattening filter or in proximity to the flattening filter, said flattening filter being annular, dome shaped, disc-shaped, a flattened dome, a truncated pyramid, a truncated cone, or trapezoidal. Embodiment C10: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a concave surface. Embodiment C11: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has a convex surface. Embodiment C12: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying thickness. Embodiment C13: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and has varying density. Embodiment C14: wherein the flattening filter (150) is disc-shaped and is constructed from a combination of two or more materials having different densities, different thicknesses, or a combination thereof.

Embodiment Set D

[0437] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0438] Embodiment D1: A cap system (110) for housing a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the cap system (110) comprises an inner cavity (140) formed by a side wall (115) and a bottom surface (112) sealed to a bottom edge (115c) of the side wall (115) around its perimeter, the inner cavity (140) is for accepting the RBS (210), wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140), the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110).

[0439] Embodiment D2: wherein the flattening filter (150) is according to any of the disclosed herein. Embodiment D3: wherein the flattening filter (150) is integrated into the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110). Embodiment D4: wherein the flattening filter (150) is a separate piece for placement on or in proximity to the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110). Embodiment D5: wherein the side wall (115) is cylindrical. Embodiment D6: wherein the side wall or the inner cavity has a diameter from 7 to 14 mm. Embodiment D7: wherein the side wall or the inner cavity has a diameter of 12 mm or 13 mm. Embodiment D8: wherein the side wall has a height from 4 to 12 mm as measured from its bottom edge to its top edge. Embodiment D9: wherein the side wall has a height of 8.2 mm as measured from its bottom edge to its top edge. Embodiment D10: further comprising a ledge (148) disposed in the inner cavity (140) at an intersection of the bottom surface (112) and the side wall (115), the ledge (148) helps distribute weight of an RBS seated thereon. Embodiment D11: wherein the ledge (148) is configured to be situated 0.1 mm above a top surface of the flattening filter (150). Embodiment D12: wherein a lip (120) is disposed along a top edge of the side wall (115) of the cap system (110).

[0440] Embodiment D13: wherein at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising a titanium alloy. Embodiment D14: wherein the material comprises Grade 5 titanium (Ti6Al4V). Embodiment D15: wherein material comprises Grade 23 titanium. Embodiment D16: wherein at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising a polymer. Embodiment D17: wherein the polymer comprises high impact polystyrene (HIPS). Embodiment D18: wherein the polymer comprises polycarbonate. Embodiment D19: wherein at least a portion of the cap system (110) is constructed from a material comprising stainless steel. Embodiment D20: wherein the cap system (110) is attachable to a brachytherapy applicator handle.

[0441] Embodiment D21: wherein the cap system (110) comprises threads (182) for threadably engaging complementary threads (184) of a brachytherapy applicator handle. Embodiment D22: wherein the cap system (110) comprises prongs (166) for engaging a snap feature on a brachytherapy applicator to attach thereto. Embodiment D23: wherein the cap system (110) comprises one or more breakaway features to prevent or impede the cap system (110) from being used more than one time.

[0442] Embodiment D24: wherein the side wall (115) comprises an inner layer and an outer layer, the outer layer being a sterile barrier. Embodiment D25: wherein the side wall (115) is constructed from a material comprising a metal, a metal alloy, a polymer, or a combination thereof. Embodiment D26: wherein the polymer comprises a plastic material. Embodiment D27: wherein the polymer comprises high impact polystyrene (HIPS). Embodiment D28: wherein the inner layer is constructed from a shielding material of specific electron density. Embodiment D29: wherein the shielding material comprises tantalum. Embodiment D30: wherein the outer layer is constructed from a polymer material. Embodiment D31: wherein the polymer comprises a plastic material. Embodiment D32: wherein the inner layer has a thickness of 0.35 mm. Embodiment D33: wherein the outer layer has a thickness of 0.5 mm. Embodiment D34: wherein the bottom surface, the flattening filter, or a combination thereof is constructed from stainless steel or titanium. Embodiment D35: wherein the cap system (110) is reusable. Embodiment D36: wherein the cap system (110) is sterilizable. Embodiment D37: wherein the side wall is configured such that only less than 5 Sv can pass through. Embodiment D38: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that only 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS can pass through. Embodiment D39: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that less than 3 Sv can pass through. Embodiment D40: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that less than 5 Sv can pass through.

[0443] Embodiment D41: A cap system (110) for housing a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the cap system (110) comprises an inner cavity (140) formed by a side wall (115) and a bottom surface (112) sealed to a bottom edge (115c) of the side wall (115) around its perimeter, the inner cavity (140) is for accepting the RBS (210), wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140), the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110). Embodiment D42: further comprising a brachytherapy applicator handle for engaging the cap system and housing an RBS therein between. Embodiment D43: wherein the flattening filter is constructed from titanium. Embodiment D44: wherein the height of the flattening filter is 0.36 mm relative to wherein the bottom surface of the cap system is inside the inner cavity. Embodiment D45: wherein the cap system comprises threads (182) for threadably engaging complementary threads (184) on a distal end of the brachytherapy applicator handle.

[0444] Embodiment D46: A cap system (110) for housing a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) (210), the cap system (110) comprises an inner cavity (140) formed by a side wall (115) and a bottom surface (112) sealed to a bottom edge (115c) of the side wall (115) around its perimeter, the inner cavity (140) is for accepting the RBS (210), said inner cavity having a diameter of 11 mm; wherein a flattening filter (150) is disposed on the bottom surface (112) in the inner cavity (140), the flattening filter (150) reduces at least a portion of beta radiation emitted from an RBS thereby controlling an amount of beta radiation emitted from the bottom surface (112) of the cap system (110), said flattening filter being annular and having a thickness of 0.5 mm, an inner diameter of 3 mm, and an outer diameter of 6 mm.

Embodiment Set E

[0445] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0446] Embodiment E1: A side wall cap system comprising a cylindrical side wall (115) constructed from a dense material, wherein the side wall (115) blocks passage of at least a portion of radiation from passing therethrough. Embodiment E2: wherein the dense material comprises a polymer, a metal, or a combination thereof. Embodiment E3: wherein the dense material comprises a powder or a metal compounded in a polymer. Embodiment E4: wherein the system is biocompatible. Embodiment E5: wherein an outer surface of the system is biocompatible. Embodiment E6: wherein the system is sterilizable.

[0447] Embodiment E7: A side wall cap system comprising a cylindrical side wall (115) constructed from an inner layer and an outer layer, the outer layer is constructed from a material comprising a plastic material, the inner layer is constructed from a material that is denser than the outer layer, wherein the side wall (115) blocks passage of at least a portion of radiation from passing therethrough. Embodiment E8: wherein the inner layer comprises a polymer, a metal, or a combination thereof. Embodiment E9: wherein the inner layer comprises a powder or a metal compounded in a polymer. Embodiment E10: wherein the inner layer is constructed from a material comprising tantalum. Embodiment E11: wherein the outer layer is constructed from a plastic material. Embodiment E12: wherein the outer layer of the system is biocompatible. Embodiment E13: wherein the system is sterilizable. Embodiment E14: wherein the inner layer has a thickness of 0.35 mm. Embodiment E15: wherein the outer layer has a thickness of 0.5 mm.

[0448] Embodiment E16: A side wall cap system comprising a cylindrical side wall (115) constructed from an inner layer and an outer layer, the inner layer is constructed from a material comprising tantalum and the outer layer is constructed from a material comprising a plastic material, wherein the side wall (115) blocks passage of at least a portion of radiation from passing therethrough. Embodiment E17: wherein the outer layer of the system is biocompatible. Embodiment E18: wherein the system is sterilizable. Embodiment E19: wherein the inner layer has a thickness of 0.35 mm. Embodiment E20: wherein the outer layer has a thickness of 0.5 mm. Embodiment E21: wherein the system allows no more than 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS. Embodiment E22: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that only 3% of a prescription dose of an RBS can pass through. Embodiment E23: wherein the system allows no more than 3 Sv to pass through. Embodiment E24: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that less than 3 Sv can pass through. Embodiment E25: wherein the system allows no more than 5 Sv to pass through. Embodiment E26: wherein the side wall has a thickness such that less than 5 Sv can pass through.

Embodiment Set F

[0449] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0450] Embodiment F1: A system comprising: a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) comprising: a capsule (210) having a bottom surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the bottom surface (212), and a side wall (215); and an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the bottom surface (212) of the capsule (210); and a cap system according to the present invention that houses the RBS, whose form and fit agree with area of conjunctiva of general population, provides sterile barrier to patient, provides attenuation features for a more uniform delivery of dose, provides sidewall radiation shielding to patient, whose completed assembly with handle minimizes occupation dose to surgical suite staff and authorized user, wherein the system emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system, said portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system being the active surface area (S). Embodiment F2: further comprising a forceps grip (230) disposed in or on the proximal surface (211) of the capsule that is engageable with a pair of prongs of forceps to allow the RBS to be picked up.

[0451] Embodiment F3: A system comprising: a radionuclide brachytherapy source (RBS) comprising: a cylindrical capsule (210) having a bottom surface (212), a proximal surface (211) opposite the bottom surface (212), and a side wall (215); and an active beta radioisotope material (220) in an annulus configuration encased in the capsule (210), the active beta radioisotope material (220) emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the bottom surface (212) of the capsule (210); wherein the capsule is 10.8 mm in diameter, wherein the RBS has an activity of 110 mCi; and a cap system according to the present invention, comprising a sidewall cylindrical body of 11.0 mm, connected to a bottom portion of a minimum of 0.25 mm thickness in certain areas, and thicker portions in defined geometry (annulus, trapezoidal, disk, bollard pattern, etc. of varying radii in singular or multiple versions of a pattern) in the range of 0.75 mm thickness (of constant or gradient thicknesses) wherein the system emits beta radiation through at least a portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system, said portion of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system being the active surface area (S).

[0452] Embodiment F4: wherein S is 9.8 mm in diameter. Embodiment F5: wherein S is 8 mm in diameter. Embodiment F6: wherein S is from 6 to 12 mm in diameter. Embodiment F7: wherein S is an area defined within a 4 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. Embodiment F8: wherein S is an area defined within a 5 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. Embodiment F9: wherein T is 9.8 mm in diameter. Embodiment F10: wherein T is 8 mm in diameter. Embodiment F11: wherein T is from 6 to 12 mm in diameter. Embodiment F12: wherein T is an area defined within a 4 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. Embodiment F13: wherein T is an area defined within a 5 mm radius from a center of the interface or bottom surface of the cap system. Embodiment F14: wherein T is 70-100% of S. Embodiment G1: wherein T=S. Embodiment F15: wherein the RBS system emits an area of radiation wherein at least a portion of the area of radiation is an area of uniformity. Embodiment F16: wherein the area of uniformity has a diameter of 6 to 8 mm. Embodiment F16: wherein doses at all points within T at a depth of are within an 80% isodose contour, 90% isodose contour, or 100% isodose contour. Embodiment F17: wherein doses at all points within T at a depth of are within a 70%, an 80% isodose contour, 90% isodose contour, or 100% isodose contour. Embodiment F18: wherein doses at all points within T at a depth are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

[0453] Embodiment F19: wherein the depth is measured from the bottom surface of the cap system of the RBS system. Embodiment F20: wherein the depth is from 0.15 to 0.25 mm. Embodiment F21: wherein the depth is from 0.2 to 2 mm. Embodiment G22: wherein T is 7 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F23: wherein T is 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F24: wherein T is 9 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F25: wherein Tis 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 2 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F26: wherein Tis 7 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F27: wherein Tis 8 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F28: wherein Tis 9 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system. Embodiment F29: wherein T is 10 mm in diameter, and doses at all points within T at a depth from 0.1 to 1 mm are at least 80% of a prescription dose of the RBS system.

Embodiment Set G

[0454] Any of the embodiments can be freely connected with each other or combinations of each other, unless mutually exclusive.

[0455] Embodiment G1: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0456] Embodiment G2: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0457] Embodiment G3: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0458] Embodiment G4: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm. Embodiment G5: wherein the gamma function analyzes differences between a measurement and its reference that is condensed to one number which combines dose errors in an In-Field area and position errors in a penumbra region on a normalized vector base.

[0459] Embodiment G6: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm.

[0460] Embodiment G7: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane.

[0461] Embodiment G8: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0462] Embodiment G9: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 80%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 60-75% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 25-35% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0463] Embodiment G10: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm.

[0464] Embodiment G11: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm.

[0465] Embodiment G12: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 70%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 55-70% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 45-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-40% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0466] Embodiment G13: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 70%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 55-70% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 45-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-40% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0467] Embodiment G14: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm. Embodiment G15: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm.

[0468] Embodiment G16: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 70%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane.

[0469] Embodiment G17: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0470] Embodiment G18: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0471] Embodiment G19: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 19 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0472] Embodiment G20: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 70%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 55-70% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 45-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-40% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0473] Embodiment G21: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 70%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 55-70% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 45-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-40% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0474] Embodiment G22: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm. Embodiment G23: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm. Embodiment G24: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 65%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 50-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-30% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0475] Embodiment G25: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 65%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 50-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-30% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0476] Embodiment G26: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm.

[0477] Embodiment G27: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm.

[0478] Embodiment G28: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 65%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across said plane.

[0479] Embodiment G29: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0480] Embodiment G30: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 8 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0481] Embodiment G31: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 19 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein all points across each plane within the volume vary by no more than 20% of an average dose across the plane.

[0482] Embodiment G32: A radiation field emitted from an RBS system from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm; wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface, wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 65%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 50-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-30% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0483] Embodiment G33: An RBS system that emits a radiation field from a surface into a volume, the volume having a diameter of 10 mm and a depth of 2 mm, wherein points within the volume have a dose rate relative to a 100% maximum dose rate at the surface; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.19 mm have a dose rate from 65%-100% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.67 mm have a dose rate from 50-65% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 0.94 mm have a dose rate from 40-60% relative to the 100% maximum dose; wherein all points across a plane of the volume at a depth of 1.99 mm have a dose rate from 20-30% relative to the 100% maximum dose.

[0484] Embodiment G34: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 20% at 1.6 mm.

[0485] Embodiment G35: An RBS system having a dosimetry profile that when compared with the dosimetry curve according to any of the embodiments herein has a gamma function value of 1.0 or less, wherein constraints for the gamma function value are 10% at 1 mm.

[0486] Embodiment G36: wherein the relative dose rate varies by up to 5%. Embodiment G37: wherein the relative dose rate varies by up to 10%. Embodiment G38: wherein the relative dose rate varies by up to 15%. Embodiment G39: wherein the relative dose rate varies by up to 20%. Embodiment G40: wherein the relative dose rate varies based on the gamma function.

[0487] Although there has been shown and described the preferred embodiment of the present invention, it will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that modifications may be made thereto which do not exceed the scope of the appended claims. Therefore, the scope of the invention is only to be limited by the following claims. Reference numbers recited in the claims are exemplary and for ease of review by the patent office only, and are not limiting in any way. In some embodiments, the figures presented in this patent application are drawn to scale, including the angles, ratios of dimensions, etc. In some embodiments, the figures are representative only and the claims are not limited by the dimensions of the figures. In some embodiments, descriptions of the inventions described herein using the phrase “comprising” includes embodiments that could be described as “consisting of”, and as such the written description requirement for claiming one or more embodiments of the present invention using the phrase “consisting of” is met.

[0488] The reference numbers recited in the below claims are solely for ease of examination of this patent application, and are exemplary, and are not intended in any way to limit the scope of the claims to the particular features having the corresponding reference numbers in the drawings.