METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR CLEANING A DEVICE HOLDING FLUID

Abstract

Disclosed is methods and systems for cleaning devices holding fluid such as heat exchanges. The cleaning is performed by using a system such as a transducer assembly including at least one pair of protrusions acting as point-like pressure sources or at least one substantially circular protrusion acting as a substantially circular point-like pressure source, coupled to outer surface of the device to be cleaned. Accordingly, coupling of the system to device is reduced, and as a result, the system is able to operate at its fundamental resonance frequency, while the protrusions still permit power delivery to the device.

Claims

1. A method for cleaning a device holding fluid, the device comprising a wall comprising an outer surface and an inner surface, the method comprising following steps: a) providing a system comprising mechanical wave generating means and first end comprising at least one pair of protrusions adapted to act as a pair of point-like pressure sources or at least one substantially circular protrusion adapted to act as a substantially circular point-like pressure source, b) contacting the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one circular protrusion with the outer surface, c) the mechanical wave generating means emitting, via the at least one pair or protrusions or via the at least one substantially circular protrusion, succession of mechanical waves comprising an antinode essentially at the first end, towards the inner surface, d) the mechanical waves interfering on the inner surface and producing a vibrating inner surface, and e) the vibrating inner surface producing a pressure pulse into the fluid.

2. The method according to claim 1 wherein the system comprises a waveguide between the first end and the mechanical wave generating means.

3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprise a first member and a second member and wherein a phase difference between mechanical waves emitted via the first member and mechanical waves emitted the second member is an even multiple of π.

4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprise a first member and second member, and wherein a phase difference between mechanical waves emitted via the first member and mechanical waves emitted via the second member is between even multiple of π and odd multiple of π.

5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprises a first member and a second member, and distance d1 between the first member and the second member is ≤4h, wherein h is thickness of the wall, or when the first end comprises at least one substantially circular protrusion, radius d3 of the at least one substantially circular protrusion is ≤2h, wherein h is thickness of the wall.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein sum of contact areas b1, b2 of the at least one pair or protrusions, or contact area b3 of the at least one substantially circular protrusion with the outer surface is 1-30% of total area a of the first end.

7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the system comprises one or more flange portions, and the succession of mechanical waves comprise a node substantially at the one or more flange portions.

8. The method according to claim 1, wherein thickness of the wall is 5-30 mm.

9. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion is made of material softer than material of surface of the device.

10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the device is a heat exchanger.

11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the fluid is liquid.

12. A system for cleaning a device holding fluid, the system comprising mechanical wave generating means and a first end comprising at least one pair of protrusions adapted to act as a pair of point-like pressure sources, or at least one substantially circular protrusion adapted to act as a circular point like pressure source, wherein the mechanical wave generating means is adapted to emit succession of mechanical waves towards the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion, and wherein waveform of the mechanical waves is adapted to generate an antinode essentially at the first end.

13. The system according to claim 12, comprising a waveguide between the first end and the mechanical wave generating means.

14. The system according to claim 12, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion is adapted to be in contact with outer surface of the device so that sum of contact area of the least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion with the outer surface is 1-30% of total area of the first end.

15. A method for cleaning a device holding fluid, comprising providing the system of claim 12, and applying the system to the device.

16. The method according to claim 1, wherein sum of contact areas b1, b2 of the at least one pair or protrusions, or contact area b3 of the at least one substantially circular protrusion with the outer surface is 1-20 of total area a of the first end.

17. The method according to claim 1, wherein sum of contact areas b1, b2 of the at least one pair or protrusions, or contact area b3 of the at least one substantially circular protrusion with the outer surface is 10% of total area a of the first end.

18. The method according to claim 2, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprise a first member and a second member and wherein a phase difference between mechanical waves emitted via the first member and mechanical waves emitted the second member is an even multiple of π.

19. The method according to claim 2, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprise a first member and second member, and wherein a phase difference between mechanical waves emitted via the first member and mechanical waves emitted via the second member is between even multiple of π and odd multiple of π.

20. The method according to claim 2, wherein the at least one pair of protrusions comprises a first member and a second member, and distance d1 between the first member and the second member is ≤4h, wherein h is thickness of the wall, or when the first end comprises at least one substantially circular protrusion, radius d3 of the at least one substantially circular protrusion is ≤2h, wherein h is thickness of the wall.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0036] The exemplifying and non-limiting embodiments of the invention and their advantages are explained in greater detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0037] FIG. 1 shows a transducer assembly comprising a waveguide comprising a surface at the end adapted to be contacted with a device to be cleaned,

[0038] FIG. 2 shows a situation where the transducer assembly of FIG. 1 is connected to an outer surface of a device to be cleaned,

[0039] FIG. 3 shows electrical impedance curves of a situation wherein the transducer assembly of FIG. 1 is connected with at a 10 mm thick metal wall,

[0040] FIG. 4 shows the principle of the method of present invention for cleaning a device holding fluid demonstrated by using an exemplary non-limiting transducer assembly,

[0041] FIG. 5 shows an exemplary transducer assembly suitable for the method of the present invention and its waveguide,

[0042] FIG. 6 shows a system comprising a transducer of FIG. 5 connected to a 10 mm thick metal wall of a device to be cleaned,

[0043] FIG. 7 shows electrical impedance curves at a 10 mm thick metal wall according to the system of FIG. 6,

[0044] FIGS. 8, 9 and 11 show further exemplary transducer assemblies suitable for the method of the present invention, and

[0045] FIGS. 10A-F show exemplary designs of the first end and the point-like pressure sources a transducer assembly suitable for the method of the present invention.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0046] FIGS. 1-3 have been discussed in Background section of this document.

[0047] As defined herein, a point-like pressure source is a pressure source which has at least one of its dimension adapted to be in contact with the device to be cleaned smaller, e.g. at least two times smaller than the wavelength generated by the pressure source in a fluid within the device to be cleaned and/or in the wall of the device to be cleaned. For example, for a point source contacting a metal surface utilizing longitudinal 20 kHz ultrasound, a point-like pressure source is a source with a contact diameter significantly smaller than 25 mm, e.g. 12.5 mm, and for 100 kHz ultrasound, significantly smaller than 5 mm, e.g. 2.5 mm. For different wave modes, these diameters are adjusted according to the speed of sound of the mode.

[0048] An exemplary substantially circular point like pressure source is a substantially circular protrusion surrounding acoustic axis of a transducer assembly. An exemplary pair of point-like pressure sources is a pair of parallel protrusion such as two parallel lines in form of ridges at the first end of a transducer assembly.

[0049] In the following text, the system used in the method of the present invention is exemplified by different transducer assemblies.

[0050] The principle of the method of the present invention for cleaning a device holding fluid, such as liquid, is presented using an exemplary non-limiting transducer assembly shown in FIG. 4. Accordingly, a transducer assembly 200 suitable for the method comprises a mechanical wave generating means 201 and at least one pair of point-like pressure sources or at least one substantially circular point-like pressure source at the first end 200a of the transducer assembly. In FIG. 4, the point-like pressure sources are represented by a pair of protrusions, i.e. the first protrusion 204a and the second protrusion 204b. The exemplary non-limiting transducer assembly of FIG. 4 includes also an optional waveguide 202 between the first end 200a and the mechanical wave generating means 201.

[0051] The mechanical wave generating means 201 is adapted to emit a succession of mechanical waves towards the point-like pressure sources. The waveform of the mechanical waves is such that there is an antinode substantially at the first end 200a of the transducer assembly. The correct position of the antinode can be adjusted by proper design of the transducer assembly as discussed later in detail.

[0052] The pair of protrusions is preferably located around the acoustic axis 206 of the transducer assembly and separated from each other by a distance d1. The distance of the protrusions from the acoustic axis is marked with symbol d′.

[0053] The transducer assembly is placed in mechanical contact with the outer surface 203a of the wall 203 of the device to be cleaned via the pair of protrusions. The contact surface of the first protrusion 204a and the contact surface of the second protrusion 204b are marked in the figure with symbols b1 and b2, respectively. The sum of the contact areas, i.e. b1+b2, of the protrusions is significantly smaller than the area a of the first end of the transducer assembly. According to an exemplary embodiment, the sum of the contact areas is 1-30% of the area of the first surface.

[0054] When the transducer assembly is in operation, the mechanical wave generating means emits a succession of mechanical waves 205a, 205b via the protrusions 204a and 204b towards the inner surface 203b. Accordingly, as the mass loading of the transducer assembly to the device to be cleaned is reduced compared e.g. to the transducer assembly 100, operation of the transducer close to its natural resonance frequency is permitted. When the rigid contact is limited to point-like pressure sources, i.e. to the contact surfaces of the protrusions only, the free surface area on the first end of the transducer assembly remains large enough to permit displacements and formation of an antinode substantially at the first end of the transducer assembly. As a result, the transducer is able to operate substantially at its fundamental resonance frequency, and the protrusions still permit ultrasonic power delivery into the device.

[0055] The emitting mechanical waves interfere at the inner surface in particular within the distance d2 which is substantially the projection of d1 onto the inner surface. The interfering mechanical waves make the inner surface vibrate. As the vibrating inner surface moves, the motion produces pressure pulse 206 in the fluid 207 in the device. The displacement is shown in the figure as an enlargement 208. The pressure pulse cleans the device, for instance removes fouling from the device.

[0056] The technical effect can be achieved by using at least one substantially circular point-like pressure source instead of a pair of protrusions. An exemplary transducer assembly comprising circular point-like pressure source are shown in FIG. 9. The design of the transducer assembly shown therein is such that there is an antinode positioned at first end when the mechanical wave generating means is in operation.

[0057] When the phase difference between mechanical waves emitted from the first point-like pressure source and mechanical waves emitted from the second point-like pressure source is an even multiple of π, the wave vector is along y-direction of the coordinate system 299. The wave vector is shown in the figure as a dotted arrow. This can be achieved by using point-like pressure sources of equal length.

[0058] When the phase difference between ultrasound waves emitted from the first point-like pressure source and ultrasound waves emitted from the second point-like pressure source is between even multiple of π and odd multiple of π, the direction of wave vector differs from the y-direction of the coordinate system 299. The direction of the wave vector can be adjusted as desired. This can be achieved by using protrusions adapted to act as point-like pressure sources wherein the lengths of the protrusions differ from each other.

[0059] Thus, according to one embodiment, the method of the present invention concerns a method for cleaning a device holding fluid, the device comprising a wall comprising an outer surface and an inner surface, the method comprising the following steps [0060] a) providing a system 200 comprising [0061] mechanical wave generating means 201 and [0062] a first end 200a comprising [0063] at least one pair of protrusion 204a,b adapted to act as a pair of point-like pressure sources or [0064] at least one substantially circular protrusion adapted to act as a substantially circular point-like pressure source, [0065] b) contacting the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion with the outer surface, [0066] c) the mechanical wave generating means emitting, via the at least one pair or protrusion or via the at least one substantially circular protrusion, a succession of mechanical waves comprising an antinode essentially at the first end towards the inner surface, [0067] d) the mechanical waves interfering at the inner surface and producing a vibrating inner surface, and [0068] e) the vibrating inner surface producing and emitting a pressure pulse into the fluid.

[0069] FIG. 5 shows another exemplary transducer assembly 300 suitable for the method of the present invention. The transducer assembly comprises a mechanical wave generating means 301, such as a Langevin transducer, and a waveguide 302 between the mechanical wave generating means and the first end 300a of the transducer assembly. The tuning frequency of the transducer assembly is 20 kHz (i.e. consistent with the fundamental resonance frequency of the transducer). In the figure, also the shape of the waveform is presented. As shown in the figure, there is an antinode substantially at the first end 300a of the transducer assembly. The first end comprises a first protrusion 304a and a second protrusion 304b, i.e. a pair of protrusion. The first protrusion is separated from the second protrusion by a distance d. An exemplary distance is 30 mm. According to an exemplary embodiment the height of the protrusion in the y-direction of the coordinate system 399 is 1-100 mm. An exemplary protrusion length is 10 mm. The protrusions are adapted to act as point-like pressure sources.

[0070] The distance d between the two protrusion in the x-direction of the coordinate system 399 is preferably smaller than half of the acoustic wavelength in the fluid and/or wall of the device, for example, at 20 kHz d <38 mm. If the wall thickness of the device to be cleaned is thin e.g. <10 mm, the protrusions should be close to each other. An exemplary distance d is 5-25 mm, 20 kHz. This is to ensure that an interference point is formed on the inner surface of the wall.

[0071] FIG. 6 shows a situation wherein the transducer assembly 300 is in contact with an outer surface 303a of a wall 303 of a device to be cleaned. The thickness h of the wall is 10 mm. As shown in the figure, there is still an antinode at the first end of the waveguide, resembling the situation of a free transducer. This allows the transducer assembly to operate at its natural frequency, even when in contact with the outer surface of the device to be cleaned. Thus, the first protrusion act as a first point-like pressure source, and the second protrusion acts as a second point-like pressure source. In strict contrast to the transducer assembly 100, operation of the transducer assembly 300 at its fundamental resonance frequency is permitted. This is also clearly demonstrated by comparing electric impedance curves of the transducer operating at a metal wall using the transducer assembly 100 and transducer assembly operating in free space 300 (FIG. 3 vs FIG. 7). Figures show the magnitude (Magn) and phase (Arg) of the impedance. FIG. 7 shows curves for a partially mechanically loaded transducer (i.e. transducer featuring a protrusion contact). The resonance frequency is 20.4 kHz i.e. consistent with the fundamental resonance of the transducer, the impedance magnitude is relatively low (100Ω) and the phase curve shifts from negative to positive at the resonance. The curves are very close to those of an unloaded transducer. In comparison, FIG. 3 shows curves for a fully mass loaded transducer. The resonance frequency is shifted to 26 kHz, the impedance magnitude is relatively high (550Ω) and the phase curve does not shift from negative to positive at the resonance.

[0072] According to an embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, the transducer assembly comprises an optional waveguide. The advantage of the waveguide is that it can be used for tuning the length L of the transducer assembly, i.e. the distance between the first end 200a, 300a and the second end 200b, 300b such that there is an antinode at the first end. Furthermore, a waveguide may be useful in applications wherein the transducer assembly need to be in contact with hot surfaces by isolating the mechanical wave generating means from the heat source.

[0073] As discussed above the waveguide is optional. A transducer assembly 400 without the waveguide is shown in FIG. 8. The transducer assembly shown in the figure comprises a mechanical wave generating means 401 and a pair of protrusion 404a, 404b adapted to act as a pair of point-like pressure sources positioned at the first end 400a of the transducer assembly. The mechanical wave generating means is adapted to emit a succession of mechanical waves towards the point like pressure sources. The shape of the waveform is such that there is an antinode substantially at the first end 400a of the transducer assembly.

[0074] A still further transducer assembly suitable for the method of the present invention is shown in FIG. 9. The transducer assembly 500 is as disclosed in FIG. 5, i.e. it comprises a mechanical wave generating means 501, an optional waveguide, and a point-like pressure source 504 at the first end 500a, but the point like-pressure source 504 is in the form of a substantially circular protrusion. Exemplary substantially circular forms are circular, ellipsoid and oval forms. An exemplary structure of a circular point like pressure source is best seen in right portion of FIG. 9, wherein the area of the contact surface is presented with the symbol b3. The circular point-like pressure source is typically positioned around the acoustic axis 506 of the transducer assembly. Symbol d3 represents the distance between the acoustic axis and the inner edge of the circular point like pressure source.

[0075] FIGS. 10A-F represent exemplary non-limiting structures of the first ends and the point like pressure sources of a transducer assembly suitable for the method of the present invention.

[0076] In FIG. 10A, the first end is rectangular, and it comprises two protrusion protrusions 607a and 607b. The protrusion protrusions are in form of two parallel lines and their distance d′ from the acoustic axis 606 is the same.

[0077] In FIG. 10B, the first end is rectangular, and it comprises two pairs of protrusion protrusions namely 608a,b and 609a,b in form of parallel lines. The distance of protrusion 608a and protrusion 608b from the acoustic axis 606 is the same. This is the case also with protrusion 609a and protrusion 609b.

[0078] In FIG. 10C, the first end of the waveguide is rectangular, and it comprises four protrusion protrusions 610a-d as triangles in the corners of the first end. The distance of each protrusion from the acoustic axis is the same.

[0079] In FIG. 10D, the first end of the waveguide is circular, and it comprises one circular protrusion 611 around the acoustic axis.

[0080] In FIG. 10E, the first end is circular, and it comprises three circular protrusion protrusions 612a-c around the acoustic axis.

[0081] According to a particular embodiment the area of the first end 600a of a transducer assembly 600 is larger than the cross-sectional area of the waveguide 602. This allows the acoustic radiation efficiency to be increased, by increasing the acoustic radiation impedance versus ultrasound impedance of the transducer. Side view of an exemplary transducer assembly 600 of this type is shown in FIG. 10F.

[0082] According to one embodiment the mechanical wave generating means is a Langevin transducer. A Langevin transducer comprises a front mass (head), a back mass (tail) and piezoelectric ceramics. A Langevin transducer is a resonant transducer for high-power ultrasonic actuation. The transducer is composed by a stack of piezoelectric disks 301a, e.g. 2, 4, 6 or 8 disks, clamped between two metallic bars, typically aluminum, titanium or stainless-steel, that feature a front mass and a back mass of the transducer, respectively. The length of the front mass and back mass of the transducer are tuned so that the transducer behaves as a half-wavelength resonator, i.e. a fundamental standing wave is born along the long axis of the transducer, featuring an antinode at both ends of the transducer. This results in an antinode at the first end 300a and at the second end 300b of the transducer assembly, and a nodal point at the middle of the waveguide. Such a transducer is narrowband featuring sharp resonance and anti-resonance, separated typically by a narrow, e.g. 1 kHz, frequency interval. Optimal and natural resonance behavior occurs when the transducer is driven in free space (no mechanical load). Any loading damps the resonance, increases the bandwidth and affects the resonance frequency. Heavy loading kills the fundamental resonance. Although the transducer assembly still is able to operate at higher resonance frequencies even when heavily loaded its efficiency is reduced. The higher resonance frequencies are in this case those of the coupled system, i.e. loading-modified higher resonance frequencies of the transducer assembly.

[0083] The transducer assembly 300 shown in FIG. 5 is in contact with the device to be cleaned via contact areas b1, b2 of the point-like pressure sources. An exemplary contact area is 110 mm.sup.2 which is 10% of the area of the first end 300a, with exemplary variation between 1% and 30% of the surface area.

[0084] According to a preferable embodiment the distance d between the point-like pressure sources, i.e. the first protrusion and the second protrusion is 4 h or less, wherein h is the thickness of the wall of the device. When d≤h, ultrasonic interference at the inner surface of the wall of the device is optimal. Analogously, when the transducer assembly comprises at least one circular protrusion as shown in FIG. 9, the radius d3 of the at least one circular protrusion is preferably ≤2 h, wherein h is thickness of the wall.

[0085] FIG. 11 represents an embodiment wherein length of the first protrusion 704a in the y-direction of the coordinate system 799 is longer than the length of the second protrusion 704b. According to this embodiment the pressure maximum on the inner surface of the device caused by the first protrusion occurs first, and the pressure maximum on the inner surface of the device caused by the second protrusion occurs later. Thus, by tuning the lengths of the protrusions along the y-direction of the coordinate system 799, the direction of the wave vectors and the direction of pressure pulses in the fluid can be changed as desired. Protrusions of different length provide a phase difference between the point sources on the wall surface. The phase difference affects the location of the interference point and the direction of the wave vectors formed and thus the direction of the acoustic pressure wave launched into the fluid.

[0086] The phase difference can be determined by the difference in times of flight of the mechanical wave in protrusions of different lengths with respect to the period of the waves. For example, if the difference in height of two protrusions is 60 mm it gives rise to a π/2 phase difference, 30 mm difference a π/4 phase difference and 15 mm difference a π/8 phase difference at 20 kHz, assuming that the speed of the sound in the protrusions is 5 km/s. Since the sound velocity in the protrusion depends on the geometry of the protrusion, adjusting the phase often requires finite element simulations.

[0087] According to a preferable embodiment the transducer assembly comprises one or more flanges 312, i.e. the transducer assembly has different cross-sectional areas, and the waveguide acts not only as a connection element between the mechanical wave generating means and the device to be cleaned, but also as a mechanical amplifier.

[0088] In contrast to the transducer 100, the contact area of the first surface of a waveguide of a transducer suitable for use in the method of the present invention, i.e. the contact area of the protrusions is less than 100%. According to a preferable embodiment, the contact area of the at least one pair of protrusions is 1-30%, more preferably 1-20%, most preferably about 10% of the total area of the first surface. An exemplary contact area of a protrusion or a circular protrusion acting as a point-line pressure source is 110-330 mm.sup.2.

[0089] The thickness of the vessel wall of the device to be cleaned is typically 2-30 mm. The point like pressure sources such as the protrusions of the waveguides of a transducer are preferably made of material that is softer than the material of surface of the device. According to an exemplary embodiment, the surface of the device is made of stainless steel and the protrusions are made of aluminum.

[0090] According to another embodiment the present invention concerns a system comprising [0091] mechanical wave generating means 201, 301, 401, 501, 701 and [0092] a first end 200a, 300a, 400a, 500a, 700a comprising [0093] at least one pair of protrusions 204a,b, 304a,b, 404a,b, 704a,b adapted to act as a pair of point-like pressure sources or [0094] at least one substantially circular protrusion 504 adapted to act as a circular point like pressure source,
wherein the mechanical wave generating means is adapted to emit a succession of mechanical waves towards the at least one pair of protrusions or the at least one substantially circular protrusion, and wherein the waveform of the mechanical waves is such that there is an antinode essentially at the first end.

[0095] The point like pressure sources are adapted to be in contact with the outer surface of the device to be cleaned. The sum of contact areas of the protrusions or the substantially circular protrusions 1-30%, more preferably 1-20%, most preferably about 10% of total area a of the first end 300a, 400a of the transducer. The distance between protrusions is typically 5-50 mm, preferably 4 h or less, wherein h is the thickness of the wall of the device to be cleaned. Exemplary sum contact area is 110-330 mm.sup.2.

[0096] According to a preferable embodiment the system comprises one of more flange portions positioned essentially at nodes of the wave form generated by the mechanical wave generating means.

EXPERIMENTAL

[0097] Design of the Transducer Assembly

[0098] The transducer assembly was composed of a piezoelectric ultrasonic stack transducer (Langevin transducer, sandwich transducer) and an optional waveguide. The transducer was either a commercially available model, or a custom made one. The transducer was a narrowband (featuring typically e.g. a 1 kHz bandwidth) resonant transducer, composed by a stack of piezoelectric disks (e.g. 2, 4, 6 or 8 disks), clamped between two metallic bars (typically aluminium, titanium or stainless steel) that feature front mass and back mass of the transducer.

[0099] The transducer design was based on a chosen resonant frequency (e.g. 20 kHz) which determines the choice (material and dimensions) of the piezoelectric disks. The stack of piezoelectric disks features a narrowband resonator. The lengths of the front mass and back mass were tuned such that the coupled resonator (i.e. transducer) behaves as a half-wavelength (lambda/2) resonator at the chosen frequency. This is the fundamental resonance of the transducer. The bandwidth remained narrow (e.g. 1 kHz). Transducer design was based on theoretical and/or numerical modelling (finite-element simulations).

[0100] An optional waveguide was fitted as an extension on the first end of the transducer. The length of the waveguide was chosen/tuned so as to maintain the fundamental resonance behavior of the transducer. To this end, the waveguide length must be a multiple of lambda/2. A waveguide may be useful e.g. to increase the q-value of the transducer assembly, to provide thermal insulation between the transducer and a system to be cleaned, or to provide flexibility in transducer placement in situations when the transducer cannot directly fit against the device to be cleaned. Waveguide design is based on theoretical and/or numerical modelling (e.g. finite-element simulations).

[0101] Point-like contacts (e.g. contact protrusions or circles) were machined as extensions on the first end of a transducer assembly. The shapes of the contact structures were evaluated and optimized by theoretical and/or numerical modelling (finite-element simulations).

EXAMPLE

[0102] A transducer assembly featuring contact protrusions was designed as described above. It delivered 9 dB more acoustic power into the water inside a steel vessel as compared to similar transducer with conventional mechanical contact. The experiment was carried out by calorimetric means in a thermally insulated vessel, at the fundamental frequency (20 kHz) of the transducer using the same electric input power.