SELF-ASSEMBLED HIERARCHICAL POROUS Pd@PdPt YOLK-SHELL NANOARCHITICTONICS AND HOLLOW PdPt NANOCAGES HYDROGEN SENSORS

Abstract

Described herein are hierarchical porous Pd@PdPt yolk-shell nanoarchitectonics and hollow PdPt nanocages hydrogen sensors, methods of producing the hydrogen sensors, and methods of using the sensors to detect H.sub.2 under ambient conditions.

Claims

1. A porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage for H.sub.2 detection wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises a Pd nanocube core coated with a hierarchal porous layer and PdPt porous spatial nanodendrites wherein the dendrites comprise hyper-branched arms and wherein the hollow PdPt nanocage comprises a hollow core, a hierarchal porous layer, and PdPt porous nanodendrites.

2. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell of claim 1, wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell has a diameter of about 70 nm to 90 nm.

3. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell of claim 2, wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell has a diameter of 80 nm.

4. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell of claim 1, wherein the hyper-branched arms have an average thickness of about 20 nm to 40 nm. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell of claim 4, wherein the hyper-branched arms have an average thickness of about 30 nm.

6. The hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the hollow PdPt nanocage has a diameter of about nm to 40 nm.

7. The hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 6, wherein the hollow PdPt nanocage has a diameter of about nm.

8. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the hierarchal porous layer is characterized by pores that are less than about 2 nm and pores that are greater than about 10 nm.

9. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt is about 1:1 to 3:2 as measured by EDS elemental mapping. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS is between about 52:48 to 58:42.

11. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or PdPt nanocage detects H.sub.2 at a concentration from about 0.05 v % to 12 v % in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2 at a temperature between about 5-90° C. and exhibits a response time between about 90 seconds to 170 seconds.

12. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 11, wherein the concentration of H.sub.2 is about 0.2 v % to 8 v %.

13. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 11, wherein the temperature is between about 25-50° C.

14. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 11, wherein the response time is between about 120 seconds and 150 seconds. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 11, wherein the H.sub.2 detection is carried out under an applied voltage of 0.1-2 V.

16. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the porous Pd@PdPt Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage are free-standing.

17. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, wherein the porous Pd@PdPt Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage are supported.

18. The porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 17, wherein the support is polymer-based support, carbon-based support, or a semiconductor.

19. A synthesis for the porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell of claim 1, comprising the following steps: (a) the synthesis of a Pd nanocube; (b) the coating of the Pd nanocube with a SiO.sub.2 layer via silanization to afford Pd.sub.nanocube@SiO.sub.2; (c) the formation of the PdPt nanodendrites via self-assembly to afford Pd@SiO.sub.2@PdPt; and (d) the etching of the SiO.sub.2 layer to afford the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell. A synthesis for the hollow PdPt nanocage of claim 1, comprising the following steps: (a) the synthesis of SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles; (b) the formation of the PdPt nanodendrites over the SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles via self-assembly to afford SiO.sub.2@PdPt; and (c) the etching of the SiO.sub.2 layer to afford the PdPt nanocages.

21. A porous Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or hollow PdPt nanocage for CO or H.sub.2S detection wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises a Pd nanocube core coated with a hierarchal porous layer and PdPt porous spatial nanodendrites wherein the dendrites comprise hyper-branched arms and wherein the hollow PdPt nanocage comprises a hollow core, a hierarchal porous layer, and PdPt porous nanodendrites.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0008] FIG. 1 is a scheme illustrating the fabrication process of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell described herein.

[0009] FIG. 2A is a TEM image of the Pd nanocubes.

[0010] FIG. 2B is a TEM image of Pd@SiO.sub.2@PdPt.

[0011] FIG. 2C is a TEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0012] FIG. 2D is a TEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell. The arrow is pointing to the Pd core.

[0013] FIG. 2E is an HRTEM image of the boxed area in the shell in FIG. 2D.

[0014] FIG. 2F is a SAED image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0015] FIG. 3A is an HAADF-STEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and its EDS elemental mapping analysis.

[0016] FIG. 3B is an HAADF-STEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and its EDS elemental mapping analysis for Pd in the core.

[0017] FIG. 3C is an HAADF-STEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and its EDS elemental mapping analysis for Pt.

[0018] FIG. 3D is an HAADF-STEM image of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and its EDS elemental mapping analysis for Pd in the shell area.

[0019] FIG. 4 is an XRD spectrum of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0020] FIG. 5A is an XPS survey of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0021] FIG. 5B is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pt of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0022] FIG. 5C is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pd of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0023] FIG. 6A is a graph showing the electrical current signal of the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C.

[0024] FIG. 6B is a graph showing the electrical current signal of the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at 50° C.

[0025] FIG. 7A is a graph showing the H.sub.2 gas response defined as ΔI/I.sub.min as a function of H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C. and 50° C. on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0026] FIG. 7B is a graph showing the H.sub.2 gas response time as a function of H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C. and 50° C. on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0027] FIG. 8A is the electrical impedance measurements at 25° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0028] FIG. 8B is the electrical impedance measurements at 50° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0029] FIG. 8C shows the current-voltage I(V) measurements at 25° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0030] FIG. 8D shows the current-voltage I(V) measurements at 50° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0031] FIG. 9 is the XRD spectrum of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0032] FIG. 10A is an XPS survey of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0033] FIG. 10B is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pt of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0034] FIG. 10C is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pd of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0035] FIG. 11 is a scheme illustrating the fabrication process of the PdPt nanocages described herein.

[0036] FIG. 12A is a TEM image of the PdPt nanocages.

[0037] FIG. 12B is a TEM image of the PdPt nanocages.

[0038] FIG. 12C is an HRTEM image of the marked area in the shell in FIG. 12B.

[0039] FIG. 12D is a SAED image of the PdPt nanocages.

[0040] FIG. 13A is an HAADF-STEM image of the PdPt nanocages and its EDS elemental mapping analysis.

[0041] FIG. 13B is an HAADF-STEM image of the PdPt nanocages and its EDS elemental mapping analysis for Pd.

[0042] FIG. 13C is an HAADF-STEM image of the PdPt nanocages and its EDS elemental mapping analysis for Pt.

[0043] FIG. 14 is an XRD spectrum of the PdPt nanocages.

[0044] FIG. 15A is an XPS survey of the PdPt nanocages.

[0045] FIG. 15B is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of the Pt of the PdPt nanocages.

[0046] FIG. 15C is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of the Pd of the PdPt nanocages.

[0047] FIG. 16A is a graph of the electrical current signal of the H.sub.2 gas response on the PdPt nanocages as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C.

[0048] FIG. 16B is a graph of the electrical current signal of the H.sub.2 gas response on the PdPt nanocages as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at 50° C.

[0049] FIG. 17A is a graph showing the H.sub.2 gas response defined as ΔI/I.sub.min as a function of H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C. and 50° C. on PdPt nanocages.

[0050] FIG. 17B is a graph showing the H.sub.2 gas response time as a function of H.sub.2 concentration at 25° C. and 50° C. on PdPt nanocages.

[0051] FIG. 18A shows the current-voltage I(V) measurements at 25° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on PdPt nanocages.

[0052] FIG. 18B shows the current-voltage I(V) measurements at 50° C. before and after the H.sub.2 gas response on PdPt nanocages.

[0053] FIG. 19 is the XRD spectrum of the PdPt nanocages before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0054] FIG. 20A is an XPS survey of the PdPt nanocages before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0055] FIG. 20B is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pt of the PdPt nanocages before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

[0056] FIG. 20C is a high-resolution XPS spectrum of Pd of the PdPt nanocages before and after the H.sub.2 gas response at 50° C.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0057] Described herein are hierarchical porous Pd@PdPt yolk-shell nanoarchitectonics (Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell) and hollow PdPt nanocages with ordered interconnected pores over the entire interior and exterior surface and a branched outer shell. The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises a Pd nanocube core coated with a hierarchal porous layer and PdPt porous spatial nanodendrites. The hollow PdPt nanocages comprise a hollow core and PdPt porous nanodendrites. Both the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells and PdPt nanocages are formed via energy-efficient and eco-friendly one-pot reactions with high yield (100%) and high mass production (gram-scale in one run) at room temperature without any hazardous chemicals. These freestanding Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and hollow PdPt nanocages efficiently, sensitively, and selectively detect H.sub.2 without undergoing physical destruction even at low and high concentrations of H.sub.2 (about 0.1 v %- 8 v %) in air at about room temperature and 50° C. The H.sub.2 response time of the freestanding Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells and hollow PdPt nanocages is in the range of about 90 to 170 seconds in the air at about room temperature and at 50° C. In one embodiment, the hydrogen response time is less than 30 seconds to allow for efficient large-scale applications. In certain embodiments, the response time of less than 30 seconds can be achieved by carrying out a set of consecutive reaction experiments, using carbonaceous support or transition metal oxide support or by increasing the amount of Pd.

[0058] The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells and hollow PdPt nanocages described herein combine the unique physiochemical merits of multimetallic (electronic, bi-functional, synergism) and inherent catalytic properties, high porosity (electron-rich density, high surface area to volume ratio and massive accessible active adsorption sites), core-shell shapes (electronic effect, and bifunctional mechanism), and porous shapes (great H.sub.2 adsorption/desorption, mechanical stability, quick diffusion rate and a high tolerance for the reaction intermediates or products). The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells comprise a Pd nanocube core wrapped by a hierarchal porous shell and PdPt porous spatial nanodendrites with hyperbranched arms. The hollow PdPt nanocages are made of a hollow core and PdPt porous nanodendrites.

[0059] Also described herein is the straightforward and high yielding synthesis of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and hollow PdPt nanocage sensors. The synthetic approach is a combination between the stöber method and self-assembly and template-based approaches. To synthesize the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell, a Pd nanocube core is formed and coated with a SiO.sub.2 layer via silanization and are then coated with PdPt nanodendrites via self-assembly (FIG. 1). Finally selective eroding of the SiO.sub.2 forms the yolk-shell. The PdPt nanocages are also formed via silanization, self-assembly, and selective eroding (FIG. 11).

[0060] The shape and composition of the nanostructures can be tuned by changing the type and concentrations of the metal precursors. Unlike previous approaches, the method described herein is facile, one-pot, easy to adjust to tailor the size, shape and composition of the hierarchical porous multimetallic nanocrystals, high yielding, and can be conducted at room temperature. For example, the core and shell could easily comprise binary or ternary metals. Further, the method can be used for the production of free-standing or supported porous nanoarchitectonics with different compositions. The production of Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and hollow PdPt nanocages is also feasible for large-scale applications as they are one-pot and green (no hazardous chemicals or organic solvents are used and they are conducted at room temperature), with a high mass production (up to several grams in one run).

[0061] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and hollow PdPt nanocages described herein are used as efficient, low-cost, durable, and scalable sensors for H.sub.2 detection at room temperature and up to about 50° C. in air. These Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell and hollow PdPt nanocages detect H.sub.2 without any support, and are therefore highly cost-effective. The sensors are also compatible with many substrates, including, but not limited to, SiO.sub.2/Si, polymers or carbon.

[0062] Unlike previously developed sensors, the sensors described herein are capable of prompt detection (within only about 90 seconds to 170 seconds) of H.sub.2 at various concentrations ranging from about 0.2 v % to 8 v %. Further, the detection does not cause any kind of physical distortion or destruction to the Pd core or the PdPt shell. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells and hollow PdPt nanocages are used for H.sub.2 detection at room temperature and at about 50° C. in air. Further, the sensor works at a low voltage of about 1 V and the detection requires only a few microliters (10-20 μL) of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells or hollow PdPt nanocages.

[0063] In alternative embodiments, the the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells or hollow PdPt nanocages detect CO or H.sub.2S.

Pd@PdPt Yolk-Shell Nanoarchitectonics (Pd.SUB.nanocube.@PdPt.SUB.nanodendrites .Yolk Shell)

[0064] Described herein are Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells comprising a Pd nanocube core wrapped by a hierarchal porous shell and PdPt porous spatial nanodendrites with hyper-branched arms. In one embodiment, the nanocube of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell has a diameter of about 5 nm to 15 nm, about 7 nm to about 14 nm, or about 8 nm to 12 nm. In one embodiment, the nanocube has a diameter of about 10 nm.

[0065] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell has a diameter of about 60 nm to 100 nm, about 70 nm to 90 nm, or about 75 nm to 85 nm. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell has a diameter of about 80 nm. In one embodiment, the nanocube of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises nanospheres. In one embodiment, the nanocube of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises a noble metal, including, but not limited to Pt, Au, Ag, or Ir, or transition metal oxide, including, but not limited to, CuO, ZnO, Fe.sub.2O.sub.3, Fe.sub.3O.sub.4, or SnO nanoparticles. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is hollow and has a 1D shape.

[0066] In one embodiment, the branches of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell have an average thickness of about 20 nm to 40 nm, about 25 nm to 35 nm, or about 28 nm to 32 nm. In one embodiment, the branches of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell have an average thickness of about 30 nm.

[0067] The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell have a hierarchal porous shell. In one embodiment, the shell of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is both mesoporous and macroporous, for example, the shell is characterized by pores that are less than about 2 nm and pores that are greater than about 10 nm.

[0068] The shell of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is a homogenous distribution of Pd and Pt, while the core is Pd. In certain embodiments, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is about 1:1 to 3:2 as measured by EDS elemental mapping. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is about 1:1. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is about 3:2.5. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is about 3:2.

[0069] In certain embodiments, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is characterized by {111}, {211}, {200}, {220}, and {311} facets as measured via X-ray diffraction. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is characterized by an X-ray diffraction pattern similar to that of FIG. 5A.

[0070] In certain embodiments, the XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) spectrum of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises at least a Pt 4f and Pd 3d peak. In one embodiment, the Pt 4f peak is at about 70.8 eV and the Pd 3d peak is at about 74.2 eV. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS are about 45:55, about 50:50, or about 55:45. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS is between about 52:48 to 58:42. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS is 55:45.

[0071] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is deposited on a SiO.sub.2/Si matrix formed by depositing the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell on the SiO.sub.2/Si matrix to form an ohmic contact layer. In certain embodiments, the ohmic contact layer comprises SiO.sub.2/Si, quartz, Nafion, or optical microfibers.

[0072] In one embodiment, the nanocube and/or shell of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises one or more strong reductants selected from a group comprising NaBH.sub.4 and LiAlF.sub.4 .

[0073] In one embodiment, the nanocube and/or shell of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises one or more types of non-metal ions selected from KI, KBr, KCl, and NaOH, HBr, and HClO.sub.4.

[0074] In one embodiment, the nanocube and/or the shell of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises nanospheres.

[0075] The synthesis of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is shown in FIG. 1. In certain embodiments, the synthesis of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell comprises the following steps: [0076] (a) synthesis of a Pd nanocube; [0077] (b) coating of the Pd nanocube with a SiO.sub.2 layer via silanization to afford Pd.sub.nanocube@SiO.sub.2; [0078] (c) forming the PdPt nanodendrites via self-assembly to afford Pd@SiO.sub.2@PdPt; and [0079] (d) etching of the SiO.sub.2 layer to afford the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell.

[0080] In one embodiment, the Pd nanocube is synthesized by mixing a Pd source, a pluronic, and an acid with sonication. The resulting solution is centrifuged and washed. In one embodiment, the Pd source is Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4. In one embodiment, the pluronic is Pluronic F-127. In one embodiment, the acid is ascorbic acid.

[0081] In an alternative embodiment, the Pd nanocube is synthesized by mixing a Pd source, a non-ionic co-polymer, and an acid with sonication. Non-limiting examples of the non-ionic co-polymer include polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyethylene glycol hexadecyl ether (polyoxyethylene (20) cetyl ether).

[0082] In an alternative embodiment, the Pd nanocube is synthesized by mixing a Pd source, an ionic co-polymer, and an acid with sonication. Non-limiting examples of the ionic co-polymer include hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide and hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride.

[0083] In one embodiment, the Pd nanocube is coated with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) to afford Pd.sub.nanocube@SiO.sub.2.

[0084] In one embodiment, the PdPt nanodendrites are formed via self-assembly by first synthesizing (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS)-modified Pd.sub.nanocube@SiO.sub.2. The APTMS-modified Pd.sub.nanocube@SiO.sub.2 is then mixed with a Pt source and a Pd source, a pluronic, and an acid under sonication to afford the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell. In one embodiment, the Pt source is K.sub.2PtCl.sub.4. In one embodiment, the Pd source is Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4. In one embodiment, the pluronic is Pluronic F-127. In one embodiment, the acid is ascorbic acid.

PdPt Nanocages

[0085] Also described herein are hollow PdPt nanocages that comprise a hollow core and PdPt porous nanodendrites. In one embodiment, the PdPt nanocage has a diameter of about 60 nm to 100 nm, about 70 nm to 90 nm, or about 75 nm to 85 nm. In one embodiment, the PdPt nanocage has a diameter of about 80 nm. In one embodiment, the average thickness of the dendritic shell of the PdPt nanocage is about 20 nm to 40 nm, about 25 nm to 35 nm, or about 28 nm to 32 nm. In one embodiment, the average thickness of the dendritic shell of the PdPt nanocage is about 30 nm.

[0086] The PdPt nanocages have a hierarchal porous shell. In one embodiment, the shell of the PdPt nanocage is both mesoporous and macroporous, for example, the shell is characterized by pores that are less than about 2 nm and pores that are greater than about 10 nm.

[0087] The PdPt nanocage is a homogenous distribution of Pd and Pt. In certain embodiments, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the PdPt nanocage is about 1:1 to 3:2 as measured by EDS elemental mapping. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the PdPt nanocage is about 1:1. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the PdPt nanocage is about 3:2.5. In one embodiment, the atomic ratio of Pd to Pt in the PdPt nanocage is about 3:2.

[0088] In certain embodiments, the PdPt nanocage is characterized by {111}, {211}, {200}, {220}, and {311} facets as measured via X-ray diffraction. In one embodiment, the PdPt nanocage is characterized by an X-ray diffraction pattern similar to that of FIG. 14.

[0089] In certain embodiments, the XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) spectrum of the PdPt nanocage comprises at least a Pt 4f and Pd 3d peak. In one embodiment, the Pt 4f peak is at about 70.4 eV and the Pd 3d peak is at about 74.5 eV. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS are about 40:60, about 45:44, about 50:50, about 55:45, or about 60:40. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS is between about 52:48 to 58:42. In one embodiment, the surface atomic ratio of Pt and Pd as measured by XPS is about 56:44.

[0090] The synthesis of the PdPt nanocages is shown in FIG. 11. In certain embodiments, the synthesis of the PdPt nanocages comprises the following steps: [0091] (a) synthesis of SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles; [0092] (b) forming the PdPt nanodendrites over the SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles via self-assembly to afford SiO.sub.2@PdPt; and [0093] (c) etching of the SiO.sub.2 layer to afford the PdPt nanocages.

[0094] In one embodiment, the SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles are made from tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS).

[0095] In one embodiment, the PdPt nanodendrites over the SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles are formed via self-assembly by first synthesizing (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS)-modified SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles. The APTMS-modified SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles are then mixed with a Pt source and a Pd source, a pluronic, and an acid under sonication to afford the PdPt nanocages. In one embodiment, the Pt source is K.sub.2PtCl.sub.4 . In one embodiment, the Pd source is Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4. In one embodiment, the pluronic is Pluronic F-127. In one embodiment, the acid is ascorbic acid.

[0096] In an alternative embodiment, the APTMS-modified SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles are mixed with a Pt source and a Pd source, a non-ionic co-polymer, and an acid under sonication. Non-limiting examples of the non-ionic co-polymer include polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyethylene glycol hexadecyl ether (polyoxyethylene (20) cetyl ether).

[0097] In an alternative embodiment, the APTMS-modified SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles are mixed with a Pt source and a Pd source, an ionic co-polymer, and an acid under sonication. Non-limiting examples of the ionic co-polymer include hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide and hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride.

[0098] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites or the PdPt nanocage is free-standing. In an alternative embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites or the PdPt nanocage is supported, for example on a polymer-based support, a carbon-based support, or a semiconductor. In one embodiment, the polymer-based support is polyvinyl alcohol-based, polyaniline-based, polyvinylpyrrolidone-based, or nafion-based. In one embodiment, the carbon-based support is graphene, graphene oxide, a carbon nanotube, carbon nitride, a MXene, or a metal-organic framework. In one embodiment, the support is a semiconductor, for example, TiO.sub.2, CuO, WO.sub.3, ZnO, or SnO.sub.2.

[0099] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites or the PdPt nanocage are supported on a printed microchip comprising Au, Pt, Al, Ag, Sn, and Cu channels.

Method of H.SUB.2 .Detection

[0100] The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage are H.sub.2 sensors that detect H.sub.2 via a chemiresistive process. In an alternative embodiment, the detection is done electrochemically. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a concentration from about 0.05 v % to 12 v % in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2 at a temperature between about 5-90° C. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 in air. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 in N.sub.2. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 in a mixture of air and N.sub.2. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a temperature between about 25-90° C. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a temperature between about 25-50° C. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a temperature of 25° C. In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a temperature of 50° C.

[0101] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a concentration from about 0.05 v % to 12 v % in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2 at a temperature between about 25-90° C.

[0102] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a concentration from about 0.1-4000 ppm in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2 at a temperature between about 5-90° C.

[0103] In one embodiment, the H.sub.2 detection limit of the yolk shell or nanocage sensors ranges from about 0.2 v % to 8 v % at 25° C. in air. In one embodiment, the H.sub.2 detection limit of the yolk shell or nanocage sensors ranges from about 0.2 v % to 6 v % at 50° C. in air. In one embodiment, the H.sub.2 response time of the yolk shell or nanocage sensors ranges from between about 90 seconds to 170 seconds in a H.sub.2 concentration of about 0.2 v % to 8 v % at about 25 or 50° C. in air. In one embodiment the concentration of H.sub.2 is 0.1-4000 ppm in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2. In one embodiment, the response time is between about 120 seconds and 150 seconds.

[0104] In certain embodiments, the yolk shell or nanocage sensors do not undergo any physical distortion or destruction of the Pd core or PdPt shell during the H.sub.2 detection, even at a H.sub.2 concentration as high as about 8 v %.

[0105] In one embodiment, the H.sub.2 detection is carried out under an applied voltage of 0.1-2 V.

[0106] In one embodiment, the response time of the PdPt nanocage is between about 100 and 140 seconds when measured at room temperature in a H.sub.2 concentration of about 4 v %. In one embodiment, the response time of the PdPt nanocage is between about 20 and 60 seconds when measured at 50° C. in a H.sub.2 concentration of about 4 v %.

[0107] In one embodiment, the response time of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is between about 110 and 150 seconds when measured at room temperature in a H.sub.2 concentration of about 4 v %. In one embodiment, the response time of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is between about 120 and 170 seconds when measured at 50° C. in a H.sub.2 concentration of about 4 v %.

[0108] In one embodiment, the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage detect H.sub.2 at a concentration from about 0.1-4000 ppm in air, N.sub.2, or a mixture of air and N.sub.2 at a temperature between about 5-90° C. wherein the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell or the PdPt nanocage is supported on graphene, a carbon nanotubs, carbon nitride, and/or a MXene.

[0109] In alternative embodiments, the the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shells or hollow PdPt nanocages detect CO or H.sub.2S.

EXAMPLES

Experimental and Methods

Materials

[0110] Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4, K.sub.2PtCl.sub.4, L-ascorbic acid (AA), pluronic F127(PEO100PP065PEO100), tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTMS) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH (Munich, Germany). Isopropanol (98%), NH.sub.4OH (25%), and hydrofluoric acid (HF 25%) were obtained from Beijing Chemical Reagent (Beijing, China). Commercial Pt/C catalyst (20 wt % Pt) was ordered from Alfa Aesar Co.

Synthesis of Pd Nanocubes

[0111] Pd nanocubes were typically prepared by mixing an aqueous solution containing 2 mL of 20 mM Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4 and 0.2 mL of (0.34 M) pluronic F127 followed by the addition of 2 mL ascorbic acid (AA, 0.1 M) under sonication for 2h. The resultant solution was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 min and washed with H.sub.2O for 3 cycles. The Pd nanoparticles colloids were dissolved in 44 mL H.sub.2O for additional use. The obtained sample is denoted as Pdnanocube.

Synthesis of Pd.SUB.nanocube.@SiO.SUB.2

[0112] Pd@SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles were synthesized by mixing 4 mL of Pd nanoparticles with 50 mL isopropanol and 0.5 mL of NH4OH followed by the addition of 200 μL of TEOS. The solution was stirred at 30° C. for 12 h. The final products were purified by centrifugation at 7000 rpm for 10 min, washed with ethanol/water, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 50° C. for 2 h.

Synthesis of Pd@PdPt Yolk-Shell

[0113] APTMS-modified Pd@SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles were formed by mixing 50 mg Pd@SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles in a 20 mL isopropanol and 300 μL APTMS with refluxing for 12 h at 353 k. The products were collected by centrifugation at 7000 rpm, washed with ethanol/water 3 times to remove the excess APTMS, and then dried at 313 k for 24 h. Pd@SiO.sub.2@PdPt nanoparticles were prepared by mixing 10 mg APTMS-modified Pd@SiO.sub.2, 3 mL of K.sub.2PtCl.sub.4 (10 mM), 3 mL of Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4 (10 mM), and 40 mg of F127 and then 1 mL of AA (0.2 M) was rapidly added under sonication at 313 k for 4 h. The resulting solution was centrifuged at 6000 rpm, washed with H.sub.2O 3 times, and then resuspended in 20 mL HF (10 wt %) for 12 h. Finally, the Pd@PdPt yolk-shell was collected by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes and washed with H.sub.2O 5 times.

Synthesis of PdPt Nanocages

[0114] The stöber method was used to form SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles. 50 mL isopropanol and 0.5 mL of NH 4 OH were mixed before adding 200 μL TEOS and the mixture was stirred at 30° C. for 12 h. Then, SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles were purified by centrifugation at 7000 rpm for 10 min, washed with ethanol/water, and dried in a vacuum oven at 50° C. for 2 h. APTMS-modified SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles were formed by mixing 50 mg SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles in 20 mL isopropanol and 300 μL APTMS under refluxing for 12 h at 353 k. The products were collected by centrifugation at 7000 rpm, washed with ethanol/water 3 times, and then dried at 50° C. for 24 h. SiO.sub.2@PdPt nanoparticles were prepared by mixing 10 mg APTMS-modified Pd@SiO.sub.2, 3 mL of K.sub.2PtCl4 (10 mM), 3 mL of Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4 (10 mM), and 40 mg of F127 and then 1 mL of AA (0.2 M) was rapidly added under sonication at 313 k for 4 h. The resulting solution was centrifuged at 6000 rpm, washed wicth H.sub.2O 3 times, and then resuspended in 20 mL HF (10 wt %) for 12 h. Finally, the PdPt nanocage was collected by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes and washed with H.sub.2O 5 times.

Sensor Fabrication

[0115] SiO.sub.2/Si glass slide substrates (1×1.5 cm.sup.2) were washed with acetone and deionized water in an ultrasonic bath and dried. Subsequently, a pair of parallel thin Cu electrodes, 3 mm apart, were deposited on each substrate. The wires were fixed to the electrodes using silver paste. An aqueous solution of Pd@PdPt yolk-shell nanoarchitectonics or PdPt nanocages or (10 1 mg/mL) were deposited on the electrodes and dried at room temperature to obtain a thin homogenous layer. Next, the fabricated sensor was carefully fixed inside a test chamber before the H.sub.2 gas detection measurements.

Materials Characterization

[0116] The morphology and composition of the as-synthesized materials were investigated with a scanning electron microscope (SEM, Hitachi S-4800, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) and a transmission electron microscope ((TEM), TecnaiG220, FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA) equipped with a high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), and high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM). The X diffraction (PXRD) patterns were recorded on the XRD diffractometer (X′Pert-Pro MPD, PANalytical Co., Almelo, Netherlands). The elements analysis was determined using an elemental analyzer (Vario EL cube, Germany. The nitrogen physisorption isotherms were tested on a Quanta chrome Instrument Corporation Autosorb-1 analyzer (Quanta chrome Instrument Corporation, Boynton Beach, FL, USA). The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra were measured on a Kratos Axis (Ultra DLD XPS Kratos, Manchester, UK).

H.SUB.2 .sensing measurements

[0117] For the electrical characterization, charge transport was examined by DC current-voltage measurements (I(V)) using an SMU-236 source measurement unit (Keithley Instruments). Ac measurements were conducted using a gain-phase analyzer (Solartron 1260A) where the electrical impedance (Z) was resolved into real part (Z′) and imaginary part (Z″) with Z=Z′+Z″. For gas response measurements, hydrogen gas was mixed with air using mass flow meters (Bronkhorst). The gas was then presented inside the test chamber. The SMU-236 was utilized to identify the gas response by measuring the variation of electrical current while applying a constant voltage of 1 V across the sample. All electrical measurements were performed inside a Teflon test chamber with a controlled temperature.

Results

[0118] FIG. 1 shows the controlled fabrication of Pd@PdPt yolk-shell nanoarchitectonics. After the formation of Pd nanocubes, the steps include, 1) silanization to coat the cube with a SiO.sub.2 layer to form Pdnanocube@SiO.sub.2; 2) self-assembly of PdPt nanodendrites to form Pdnanocube@SiO.sub.2@PdPt; and, 3) selective chemical etching of the SiO.sub.2 layer. FIG. 2A is a TEM image of the Pd nanocubes with an average diameter of (10 nm ±2) prepared by the chemical reduction of Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4with ascorbic acid in the presence of the nonionic surfactant F127 at room temperature under ultrasonic irradiation. The Pd nanocubes were coated with a SiO.sub.2 layer via the sliniziation process using the the stöber method to afford Pd@SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles (TEM image is shown in FIG. 2B). The resultant Pd@SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles were used as starting seeds for supporting growth of PdPt nanodendrites via the co-reduction of K.sub.2PtCl.sub.4 and Na.sub.2PdCl.sub.4 by ascorbic acid in the presence of F127 at room temperature followed by selective chemical etching of SiO.sub.2 to form Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell shape with a diameter of 80±5 nm (TEM image is shown in FIG. 2C). The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites exhibited a well-defined yolk-shell nanostructure with Pd nanocubes in the core and PdPt nanodendrites in the shell with multiple branches with an average thickness of 30±2 and a hierarchal porosity in the core and shell areas (TEM image in FIG. 2D). The HRTEM image (FIG. 2E) of the PdPt nanodendrites only displayed the homogenous lattice fringes with an interlayer spacing of 0.23 nm assigned to {111} facet of Pt. The selected area diffraction patterns (SAED) of Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell showed the typical diffraction rings associated to the typical {111} , {200} , {220} , {311} , and {222} facets of face central cube (fcc) lattice structure of Pt (FIG. 2F).

[0119] The HAADF-STEM image (FIG. 3A) the of Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites showed spatial yolk-shell nanoarchitectonics with Pd nanocube in the core and Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites in the shell area as well various mesoporous (≤2 pore) and macrospores (≥10 nm). The EDS elemental mapping analysis showed the homogenous distribution of PdPt in the shell area and Pd in the core (FIG. 3B-FIG. 3D). The atomic ratio content of Pd to Pt in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites was about 3 to 2, respectively. The EDX analysis also showed the presence of Pd and Pt with an atomic content of 3 and 2.5, respectively, in the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites.

[0120] The XRD analysis of the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites showed the {111}, {211}, {200}, {220}, and {311} facets of fcc Pt, due to the great lattice synergism between Pd and Pt (FIG. 4) consistent with the SAED result. The XPS analysis confirmed the electronic structure and surface composition. The XPS survey showed two main Pt 4f and Pd 3d spectra (FIG. 5A). The high resolution XPS spectra of Pt 4f showed Pt4f7/2 at 70.8 and Pt4f5/2 at 74.2 eV (FIG. 5B) in addition to Pd 4f spectra of Pd 3d5/2 at 335.0 V for Pd° metal and Pd 3d5/2 at 337.2 eV for Pd.sup.2+with a slight Pd 3d3/2 at 342.8 eV for Pd.sup.2+(FIG. 5C). The surface atomic ratio of Pt/Pd was about 55/45.

[0121] FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B show the electrical current signal of the H.sub.2 gas response on Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at room temperature (25° C.) (FIG. 6A) and at 50° C. (FIG. 6B). The Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell promptly responses to H.sub.2 gas with a typical stair shape at both 25° C. and 50° C. (FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B). Notably, the high H.sub.2 adsorption capacity of PdPt at room temperature expanded the crystal size and decreased the contacting area between Pd and Pt crystallites, subsequently enhancing the electrical current. Meanwhile, the response to H.sub.2 gas increased from 0 min to 50 min with increasing H.sub.2 concertation from 0.1 v % to 8 v % (FIG. 6A-FIG. 6B). The H.sub.2 response at 50° C. (FIG. 6B) was higher than that at 25° C. (FIG. 6A). The steady-state stair shape of the H.sub.2 response without a significant recovery (no H.sub.2 was released and the resistance decreased) on Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell is indirect evidence of its high H.sub.2 adsorption capacity at 50° C. and at 25° C.

[0122] FIG. 7A displays the H.sub.2 response defined as ΔI/I.sub.min where I.sub.min is the minimum current of each step and Al is the step height. The response increased when the H.sub.2 concentration increased from 0.1 v % to 8 v % to reach a maximum response at 8 v % (FIG. 7A). The ΔI/I.sub.min H.sub.2 response at 25° C. was significantly higher than that at 50° C. (FIG. 7A). FIG. 7B shows the dependence of the sensor response time (defined as the time required for the electrical current to increase from the minimum value to 90% of its maximum) on H.sub.2 gas concentration. The H.sub.2 response time changes up-and-down substantially with increasing H.sub.2 concentration, with minimum response time of 2.2 min at 8 v % H.sub.2 (FIG. 7B).

[0123] FIG. 8 shows the impedance measurements carried out before and after H.sub.2 gas detection on the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell at 25° C. and at 50° C. All measurements showed the typical semicircle shape for the DC resistance that can be simulated by a pair of parallel capacitors and resistors. The DC resistance decreased from 3.4 MΩ to 0.16 MΩ at 25° C. after H.sub.2 detection, which is consistent with response measurements due to hydrogen adsorption and increasing charge transfer after exposure to H.sub.2 (FIG. 8A). Likewise, the DC resistance decreased from 0.9 MΩ to 0.14 MΩ at 50° C. after H.sub.2 detection (FIG. 8B).

[0124] The H.sub.2 gas response was further investigated using the electrical charge transport measurements (FIG. 8C-FIG. 8D) before and after H.sub.2 detection. The current vs. potential I(V) measurements displayed a linear relationship at 25° C. (FIG. 8C) and at 50° C. (FIG. 8D). However, after H.sub.2 detection, the I(V) kept its linear relationship behavior, but increased by more than 2 times at 25° C. and at 50° C. due to a decrease in the resistance after exposure to H.sub.2 gas.

[0125] The XRD and XPS analysis were carried out for the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell after H.sub.2 detection measurements at 50° C. The results showed that the fcc crystal structure with the same XRD diffraction patterns without any significant changes was maintained except for a slight broadening in the half-width of the peaks (FIG. 9). Meanwhile, the XPS surveys and high-resolution analysis also showed that the Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell maintained its electronic structure and surface composition without any significant change (FIG. 10A, FIG. 10B, and FIG. 10C). These results clearly indicate the absence of any kind of physical distortion for Pd.sub.nanocube@PdPt.sub.nanodendrites yolk-shell after H.sub.2 detection even at high H.sub.2 concentrations of 6%.

[0126] FIG. 11 shows the controlled fabrication of PdPt nanocages formed via self-assembly of PdPt nanodendrites over SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles to form SiO.sub.2@PdPt followed by selective chemical etching of SiO.sub.2 to yield PdPt nanocages with a dendritic shell. FIG. 12A shows the TEM image of PdPt nanocages with a dendritic shell formed using the SiO.sub.2 nanoparticles as starting seeds for the self-assembly growth of PdPt nanodendrites via the co-reduction of K2PtCl4 and Na2PdCl4 by ascorbic acid in the presence of F 127 at room temperature followed by selective chemical etching of SiO.sub.2 to form PdPt nanocages. The average diameter of thus obtained PdPt nanocages was about 80 ±5 nm, whereas the average thickness of the spatial dendritic shell is PdPt nanodendrites was about 30 ±2 in addition to hierarchal porosity in the core and shell areas (FIG. 12B). The HRTEM images of the PdPt nanodendrites only displayed the homogenous lattice fringes with an interlayer spacing of 0.23 nm assigned to {111} facet of Pt (FIG. 12C). The SAED PdPt nanocage showed the typical diffraction rings associated to the typical {111}, {200}, {220} , {311} , and {222} facets fcc lattice structure of Pt (FIG. 12D).

[0127] The HAADF-STEM image of PdPt nanocages displayed its spatial cage-like shape with a dendritic shell along with mesoporous ≤2pore and macrospores ≥10 nm (FIG. 13A). The EDS elemental mapping analysis showed the homogenous distribution of Pd and Pt in the shell area (FIG. 13B-FIG. 13C). The atomic ratio content of Pd to Pt was about 3 to 2, respectively. The EDX analysis also exhibited the presence of Pd and Pt with an atomic content of 3 and 2.5, respectively, in the as-synthesized of PdPt nanocages.

[0128] The XRD analysis of PdPt nanocages showed the {111}, {211}, {200} , {220} , and {311} facets of fcc Pt, due to the great lattice synergism between Pd and Pt (FIG. 14) in line with the SAED result. The XPS survey revealed the two main Pt 4f and Pd 3d spectra (FIG. The high resolution XPS spectra of Pt 4f showed Pt4f7/2 at 70.4 and and Pt4f5/2 at 74.5 eV (FIG. 15B) in addition to Pd 4f spectra of Pd 3d5/2 at 334.7 V for Pd° metal and Pd 3d5/2 at 337.5 eV for Pd.sup.2+with a slight Pd 3d3/2 at 342.6 eV for Pd.sup.2+(FIG. 15C). The surface atomic ratios of Pt/Pd are about 56/44, correspondingly.

[0129] FIG. 16A and FIG. 16B show the electrical current signal of H.sub.2 gas response on PdPt nanocages as a function of time and H.sub.2 concentration at room temperature 25° C. (FIG. 16A) and at 50° C. (FIG. 16B). PdPt nanocages promptly responded to the H.sub.2 gas with a typical stair shape at 25° C. and 50° C. along with enhancement the resultant current. The H.sub.2 gas response increased with increased H.sub.2 concertation from 0.1 v % to 8 v % from min to 50 min at 25° C. (FIG. 16A). The same trend was observed at 50° C. until only 6 v % H2, after which the current decreased significantly (FIG. 16B). This is due to the sudden increase in the temperature at 6 v % H.sub.2, which resulted in H.sub.2 release and current decrease. The H.sub.2 response at 25° C. (FIG. 16A) was higher than that at 50° C. (FIG. 16B). The steady-state stair shape of the H.sub.2 response without a significant recovery on PdPt nanocages is indirect evidence its high H.sub.2 adsorption capacity at 50° C. and at 25° C.

[0130] FIG. 17A shows the H.sub.2 response defined as ΔI/I.sub.min where I.sub.min is the minimum current of each step and ΔI is the step height. FIG. 17A shows that the response is increased when the H.sub.2 concentration is increased from 0.1 v % to 8 v %. The maximum response is reached at 8 v % H.sub.2 at 25° C. and 6 v % H.sub.2 at 50° C. (FIG. 17A). ΔI/I.sub.min H.sub.2 response at 25° C. was significantly higher than that at 50° C. FIG. 17B shows the dependence of response times on the H.sub.2 gas concentration. The response time decreases substantially with increasing H.sub.2 concentration, with a minimum response time of 1.8 min at 8 v % H.sub.2 at 25° C. and 1.3 min at 6 v % H.sub.2 at 50° C. (FIG. 17B).

[0131] FIG. 18A and FIG. 18B show the H.sub.2 gas response using electrical charge transport I(V) measurements before and after H.sub.2 detection at 25° C. and 50° C. The I(V) displayed a linear relationship at 25° C. (FIG. 18A) and at 50° C. (FIG. 18B). However, after H.sub.2 detection, the I(V) kept its linear relationship behavior but increased by more than 2 times at 25° C. (FIG. 18A) and by 1.4 times at 50° C. (FIG. 18B) due to resistance decrease after exposure to H.sub.2 gas. The XRD and XPS analysis were carried out for the PdPt nanocages after H.sub.2 detection measurements at 50° C. The results showed that the PdPt nanocages maintained their fcc crystal structure with the same XRD diffraction patterns without any significant changes except for a slight broadening in the half-width of the peaks (FIG. 19). Meanwhile, the XPS surveys and high-resolution analysis also showed that the PdPt nanocages kept their electronic structure and surface composition without any significant change (FIG. 20A, FIG. 20B, and FIG. 20C). These results clearly indicate the absence of any kind of physical distortion for PdPt nanocages after H.sub.2 detection even at a high H.sub.2 concentration of 6 v %.

[0132] The H.sub.2 detection performance of the Pd@PdPtPd yolk-shell and PdPt nanocages described herein are shown in Table 1. The sensors described herein exhibit high detection limits (up to 8 v % H.sub.2) and fast response times. The sensitivity was measured at a concentration of 4 v % H.sub.2 and calculated using the equation S (%)=((R.sub.g−R.sub.a))/R.sub.a×100, where S is the sensitivity, R.sub.g is resistance under H.sub.2, and R.sub.a is resistance under air. The response time was also measured at a concentration of 4 v % H.sub.2.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 H.sub.2 detection performance of Pd@PdPtPd yolk- shell and PdPt nanocages Sensitivity Response Detection Temperature (%) time (sec) limit Sensor (° C.) at 4 v % at 4 v % (%) Pd@PtPd RT 135 130 0.2-8 yolk-shell 50  35 150 PtPd nanocages RT 225 120 0.2-8 50 100  48

[0133] The previous detailed description is of a small number of embodiments for implementing the invention and is not intended to be limiting in scope. One of skill in this art will immediately envisage the methods and variations used to implement this invention in other areas than those described in detail. The following claims set forth a number of the embodiments of the invention disclosed with greater particularity.