Continuous resonance trap refractor based antenna

Abstract

A plurality of tapered core waveguides which may be configured as a spectral component splitter, a spectral component combiner, and various combinations thereof, form a compact antenna array which may receive and/or transmit energy, act to form and steer a transmitted beam, act to discern received signals, and offer capability of multi frequency operation as well as controlled polarization.

Claims

1. An antenna array comprising, at least a first and a second of spectral combiners each comprising a tapered core waveguide having a core having a first end and a second end, the first end defining an aperture, the core having a depth direction extending between the first end and the second end; the core having a width dimension in at least one direction substantially transverse to the depth direction, the core width decreasing in magnitude in at least one direction, as a function of the depth such that the width magnitude at the aperture is higher than the width magnitude at the second end; a dielectric cladding disposed at least partially around the core, the cladding having a refractive index lower than the core refractive index; at least a first and a second radiant energy emitters disposed about the cladding or therein of the respective first and second spectral combiners, for coupling energy emitted from the energy emitters to the tapered core of the respective combiner via the cladding thereof, wherein the energy emitted from the energy emitters is coupled into the core at a respective coupling depth where a spectral component admitted via the aperture and having similar frequency to the frequency emitted from the respective radiant energy emitter would reach cladding penetration state.

2. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a phase controller controlling energy emission of the first and second energy emitters such that the first and second energy emitters emit energy at differing phases.

3. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a third and fourth radiant energy emitters coupled to the first and second spectral combiners respectively, the third and fourth energy emitters are constructed to emit energy at a frequency differing from the first and second energy emitters, and disposed to couple energy emitted therefrom at a differing depth than the first and second energy emitters respectively.

4. An antenna array as claimed in claim 3, further comprising a phase controller coupled to the first, second, third, and fourth energy sources, the phase controller controlling at least two of the energy emitters such that the at least two energy emitters emit energy at differing phases.

5. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a third radiant energy source disposed about the first spectral combiner and disposed to couple energy emitted therefrom into the spectral combiner substantially perpendicularly to the direction of energy coupled to the first spectral combiner from the first energy source.

6. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, wherein at least the first spectral combiner further comprises a center member of a different material than the core material of the tapered core.

7. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a stratum having a plurality of superposed waveguides, the first and second spectral combiner disposed at least partially within the stratum such that the depth direction is disposed within at least two of the plurality of the superposed waveguides, and the first and second energy emitters are disposed within at least one of the superposed waveguides.

8. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a stratum having a plurality of superposed waveguides, the first and second spectral combiner disposed at least partially within the stratum such that the depth direction is disposed within at least two of the plurality of the superposed waveguides, and the first and second energy emitters are respectively disposed within a first and a second of the superposed waveguides.

9. An antenna array as claimed in claim 1, wherein the width of the core along at least one dimension is reduced along the depth dimension to a magnitude bellow half wavelength of the energy emitted by the first and second energy emitters, the wavelength being measured within the core.

10. An antenna array comprising: a first and second spectral splitters, each comprising a tapered core waveguide, the tapered core waveguide comprising a core having a refractive index, and a first end and a second end, the first end defining an aperture, the core having a depth direction extending between the aperture and the second end, wherein the depth magnitude increases with distance from the first end towards the second end; the core having a plurality of width planes transverse to the depth direction, each plane having at least one width dimension lying in the width plane, the width dimension decreasing in magnitude in at least one direction as a function of the depth such that the width magnitude at the aperture is higher than the width magnitude at the second end; a cladding disposed at least partially around the core, the cladding having a refractive index lower than the core refractive index; wherein the aperture is dimensioned to allow passage of at least one spectral component of radiant energy having frequency associated therewith, and wherein the core is dimensioned at least in a respective width dimension such that the spectral component would reach a cladding penetration state at a first location; and, at least a first and a second energy receivers disposed about or within the cladding at or about the respective first location of the first and second spectral splitters, to receive the spectral component emitted via the respective splitter cladding, and transform the respectively received energy into an electrical energy.

11. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, further comprising a signal processor for determining at least phase difference between the spectral components received from the first and second energy receivers respectively.

12. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, further comprising a third and fourth energy receivers coupled to the first and second spectral splitters respectively, the third and fourth receivers being disposed at a different depth than the first and second receivers respectively.

13. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, further comprising a third and fourth energy receivers coupled to the first and second spectral splitters respectively, the third and fourth receivers being disposed substantially perpendicularly to the first and second receivers respectively.

14. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, further comprising a stratum having a plurality of superposed waveguides, the first and second spectral combiner disposed at least partially within the stratum such that the depth direction is disposed within at least two of the plurality of the superposed waveguides, and the first and second receivers are disposed within one of the superposed waveguides.

15. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, further comprising a stratum having a plurality of superposed waveguides, the first and second spectral combiner disposed at least partially within the stratum such that the depth direction is disposed within at least two of the plurality of the superposed waveguides, and the first and second receivers are disposed respectively within a first and a second of the superposed waveguides.

16. An antenna array as claimed in claim 10, wherein at least the first spectral combiner further comprises a center member of a different material than the core material of the tapered core.

Description

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

(1) The summary above, and the following detailed description will be better understood in view of the enclosed drawings which depict details of preferred embodiments. It should however be noted that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangement shown in the drawings and that the drawings are provided merely as examples.

(2) FIGS. 1a and 1 b respectively depict two-dimensional simplified waveguides.

(3) FIG. 2 depicts a simplified diagram of equivalent plane waves propagating within a waveguide being identical to a waveguide mode.

(4) FIG. 3 depicts the wavenumber as a function of frequency, the ray angle as a function of frequency, and the energy velocity as a function of frequency for two modes of a waveguide. Imaginary wavenumbers below cutoff frequency are not shown.

(5) FIG. 4 depicts a cutout of a simplified Continuous Resonant Trap Refractor (CRTR).

(6) FIG. 5 shows a cutout of a CRTR embedded in a stratum comprising lateral waveguides.

(7) FIG. 5a depicts an embodiment with a bulk material stratum.

(8) FIG. 6 depicts a cross-section of a CRTR array 900 with several optional construction details.

(9) FIG. 7 depicts a CRTR acting as a combiner, in combination with optional optical switches.

(10) FIGS. 8a-8e provide different examples of polarization sensitive CRTRs

(11) FIG. 9 depicts simplified graph showing angle-dependent transmissivity through a dielectric cladding

(12) FIG. 10 depicts a portion of a CRTR based array antenna.

(13) FIG. 10A depicts a cross-section of a CRTR tapered core, having a center void or pole.

(14) FIGS. 11A-D depict an optional method of manufacturing.

(15) FIG. 12 depicts a device where CRTR's cores are created as part of a stamp/cover.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(16) Certain figures and embodiments of the invention will be described herein by way of example to increase the understanding of different aspects of the invention.

(17) FIGS. 1a and 1 b alternately depict a short region of waveguide with insignificant variation of thickness, and are provided for simple explanation of the propagation characteristics of radiant energy within such waveguides. For the purpose of explanation, FIGS. 1a and 1 b may be considered to represent a cutout of a short region of a CRTR tapered core waveguide, or a cutout of a waveguide within lateral waveguides.

(18) FIG. 1.a shows a two dimensional waveguide 100 comprising a waveguide core material 101 of thickness (width), h, formed between conductors 102 and 103. Optionally, the waveguide core material 101 could be replaced by a plurality of layers forming an aggregate optically equivalent to a uniform material having dielectric constant, ε, and the same overall thickness. Such construction would be recognized as equivalent by the skilled artisan.

(19) The core may be considered to have an average relative dielectric constant, E, determined using formula well known in the art and resulting in a speed of electromagnetic plane wave propagation in the bulk of the core material, V.sub.b=300*10.sup.6/√{square root over (ε)} meters per second. It is noted that √{square root over (ε)} is the refractive index (commonly denoted as ‘k’ in semiconductor manufacture field, and as ‘n’ in the field of optics). In the depicted example, bounding layers 102, 103 are conductors, providing mirror reflection.

(20) The cutoff frequency, F.sub.CN, of the Nth order mode is obtained as F.sub.CN=NV.sub.B/2 h wherein N is the mode order

(21) Below this cutoff frequency an electromagnetic wave cannot travel laterally along the waveguide X axis. At the critical frequency, a guided plane wave reflects repeatedly between the upper and lower conductors but makes no lateral progress along the waveguide. Above the cutoff frequency a wave travels with a dispersion equation
β.sub.N=2π√{square root over ((F.sup.2−F.sub.CN.sup.2))}

(22) Wherein βN is wavenumber of the Nth order mode, F being the wave frequency, and FCN is the cutoff frequency as described above.

(23) The wave has N half-wavelengths of variation across the thickness, h, and propagates with a wavelength along the guide λGN=2π/βN.

(24) Higher order modes have larger values of N and have higher cutoff frequencies for the same thickness waveguide. An incident plane wave 110 at a low angle of incidence will couple best to the most uniform waveguide mode 111, so the fundamental mode is most readily coupled for incidence parallel to the waveguide.

(25) Radiant energy incident at an angle, θi 112, will be partially refracted 113 into the guide and partially reflected. The fraction of an incident wave admitted into the guide is determined by the integral of the incident wave front 110 with the mode shape 111. Narrow guides compared to the wavelength have a broader angular acceptance range, operate closer to their resonant condition, and have slower energy velocities.

(26) FIG. 1.b shows a similar two dimensional waveguide based waveguide 150 comprising a dielectric material 151 of thickness, h, formed between dielectric cladding materials 152 and 153. Notably, transparent conductors will act in a similar fashion, and their use is also contemplated.

(27) The critical frequency, FCN, is obtained as
F.sub.CN=NV.sub.B/2(h+δ.sub.N),
where δN (depicted schematically as the dimensions indicated by 162 and 163 at FIG. 1b) represents the effect of partial penetration of mode profile 161 into the neighboring dielectric regions, and h represents the thickness (width) of the core region. It is seen therefore that while the width at which a CPS occurs may differ, the qualitative properties are similar to those of the conductor clad waveguide based transducers. We note that if δN is comparable to the cladding layer thickness, FTIR energy leakage will occur and the waveguide will have a finite propagation loss. This may or may not be desirable depending on the mechanism employed for causing energy to penetrate the cladding.

(28) FIG. 2 depicts a waveguide 200 with extents along y of ±h/2 and propagation along x. The waveguide supports a fundamental mode with cross-section amplitude distribution 201 and propagation wave along the waveguide with a frequency-dependent period 202. The wave may be written as

(29) $A_{\left(X,Y\right)}=\mathrm{COS}\left(\pi \frac{y}{h}\right)\star \exp \left(j{\beta }_{N}X-\mathrm{j2}\pi \mathrm{Ft}\right)$

(30) The cosine is ½ the sum of two exponentials, representing upward 203 and downward 204 plane waves. The waves make an angle 205 with respect to the propagation direction 206, given as

(31) $\theta ={\cot }^{-1}\sqrt{\left(\frac{F^2}{F_C^2}-1\right)}$
such that as frequency, F, approaches the cutoff frequency, FC, the angle approaches 90°.

(32) FIG. 3 plots the wavenumbers, β1 301 and β2 302, having cutoff frequencies, FC1 and FC2 respectively, for a respective first and second mode of a waveguide of thickness, h, and dielectric constant, ε. The frequency axis 307 is logarithmic and normalized to cutoff frequency FC1. In the middle graph of FIG. 3, the angle of the equivalent plane waves from parallel are also shown for the first 303 and second 304 modes respectively. The angle of the equivalent plane waves from parallel is also shown for the first 303 and second 304 modes, the critical angle θC for total internal reflection 313 and the corresponding ratio of the critical frequency compared to cutoff for the first 314 and second 315 modes being shown for a dielectric-clad waveguide. In the bottom graph of FIG. 3 the energy (or group) velocity, VE1 305 and VE2 306 are shown normalized to the bulk speed of light in the material, VB. As shown, the respective group velocity is zero at the cutoff frequencies and then rapidly approach VB at high frequencies. The area where the group velocity slows significantly relative to VB is easily distinguished.

(33) A wave at high frequency relative to the waveguide's cutoff frequency will travel effectively at the speed of light in the bulk material VB, with a very low angle relative to the propagation axis of the waveguide. Such a wave has a very shallow angle of incidence on the boundaries of the waveguide and is said to have grazing incidence. By way of example, a wave having a frequency about six times the cutoff frequency has an angle of incidence of about 10° and travels at effectively the speed of light in the waveguide core material.

(34) While the examples provided in FIGS. 1a, 1b, and 2 were provided using two dimensional waveguide, extension of the above to a three dimensional waveguide of finite extent in z is well known in the art and similar expressions for the cutoff frequencies and dispersion relationships will be clear to the skilled in the art in light of the present specifications.

(35) Having considered the idealized waveguide shown with constant width at FIGS. 1a, 1b, and 2, attention is now given to the effect of tapering in a CRTR having a tapered waveguide core.

(36) As described above, a CRTR may be operated in one of two fundamental modes generally referred to as a ‘splitter mode’ and a ‘combiner mode’, and further in hybrid and reflective modes. The more detailed explanation will first concentrate on the splitter mode.

(37) FIG. 4 depicts a cutout of a simplified Continuous Resonant Trap Refractor (CRTR) which is a waveguide having a tapered core 73 and a cladding 710, and dimensioned as described below. In splitter mode the CRTR allows a wave in the spectral range of interest to propagate in the core until it reaches a cladding penetration state at a frequency dependent width, which is also a frequency dependent depth due to the core taper. The core and cladding are selected to allow the wave to propagate in the waveguide and to depart the waveguide via the cladding. The tapered core 73 has a wide end denoted in FIG. 4 as h.sub.max defining an aperture, and a narrow end h.sub.min referred to as a tip. The core is surrounded at least partially by cladding walls 710, which are conductive or have a lower refractive index than the refractive index of the core. The core region may comprise a single region or a plurality of dielectric regions, and in some embodiments a fluid is utilized as the core material. It is noted that the cladding may extend only partially about the core, but the portion which is considered as the waveguide is the portion of the core bounded by cladding at least in two opposing sides of one width direction.

(38) At any depth, the core 73 has a corresponding plurality of width dimension(s) transverse to the depth dimensions, the width dimensions for a given depth defining a width plane transverse to the depth dimension. The width plane dissects the tapered core to form a two dimensional cross-section. Stated differently, the width being any direction lying in plane transverse to the depth directions, i.e. a plane that is penetrated by the depth dimension and is substantially perpendicular thereto. The core cross-sections may be of any geometry and form, and may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. By way of example, h.sub.max and hmin and Ft denote width extending on both sides of the depth dimension X-X, and each is on a different width plane. Notably, while those examples denote symmetry about the at least two sides of the depth axis, such symmetry is not required, and other width dimensions on the respective planes may or may not be of varying magnitude. However, by virtue of the taper, considering at least two width planes, the plane closer to the aperture will have at least one width dimension having a larger magnitude than at least one width dimension magnitude on the plane that is closer to the tip. While in the example depicted in FIG. 4 the cross-sections are received from a pyramid or a cone with the clipped apex, any desired shape may be selected as long as the width direction is reduced as a function of depth. In the depicted example, the taper forms angle 760 from the vertical.

(39) Electromagnetic radiant energy admitted via the aperture propagates in the core generally along the depth dimension X-X The tapered core waveguide guides waves from the aperture, generally along the depth dimension X-X extending from the aperture h.sub.max towards the tip h.sub.min. The depth being an axis which extends indefinitely, and in these specifications increases from the aperture towards the tip, such that larger depth implies greater distance from the aperture.

(40) The electromagnetic radiant energy waves admitted via the aperture propagate along the depth dimension until such waves reach a plane of sufficiently constricted cross-section, to cause the wave to reach a cladding penetration state. The width of the CRTR core which causes the CPS for a wave of a given frequency is termed the ‘emission width’ for that wave. The distance of an emission width for a specific wave from the aperture, when measured along the depth direction, is referred to as ‘emission depth’.

(41) The core width is dimensioned such that when multi-frequency energy is admitted through the aperture and propagates along the core depth, it will cause a lower-frequency spectral component to reach a cladding penetration state at a first depth, and the core will further taper to a width that will cause energy of a higher-frequency spectral component to reach a cladding penetration state at a second depth, the second depth being larger than the first depth.

(42) Therefore, for a given CRTR spectral range of interest S.sub.i, ranging between λ.sub.max to λ.sub.min which represent respectively the longest and shortest wavelengths of the spectral range of interest as measured in the core material, wherein A′ is at least one wavelength in S.sub.i, the dimensions of a frequency splitting CRTR taper are bounded such that

(43) a. the aperture size ψ must exceed the size of one half of λ.sub.max;

(44) b. the CRTR core size must also be reduced at least in one dimension, to at least a size ζ which is smaller than or equal to one half of wavelength λ′.

(45) Thus the CRTR dimensions must meet at least the boundary of {ζ≤λ′/2≤λ.sub.max/2≤ψ} where the CRTR sizes defined above relate to a size in at least one dimension in a plane normal to the depth dimension. In FIG. 4 the aperture size ψ=h.sub.max. It is noted however that not all waves in S.sub.i must meet the condition b. above. By way of example, certain waves having shorter wavelengths than h.sub.min/2 may fall outside the operating range of the CRTR. Such waves which enter the CRTR will either be emitted through the tip, reflected back through the aperture, or absorbed by some lose mechanism.

(46) Notably if a third spectral component λ″ is present, and has a higher frequency than λ′, it may be emitted at greater depth than λ′ or be emitted via the tip if the tip is constructed to pass a spectral component of frequency λ″, or it may reflected or absorbed.

(47) The CRTR aperture is dimensioned, when operating in splitter mode, to allow the entry of a spectral component having at least the lowest frequency in the spectral range of interest, which means that the longest wavelength in the spectral range of interest for the CRTR is defined by the aperture width in at least one dimension. Notably, the spectral range of interest may be limited by other considerations to shorter wavelengths. The core taper in at least one dimension which must encompass both the emission width of the longest wave in the spectral range of interest as well as an emission width of at least one shorter wavelength within the spectral range of interest. The CRTR either will taper to less than the emission width of the shortest wave in the spectral range of interest or will allow the final portion of the spectral range of interest to exit vertically at a truncated tip of the core. Larger widths than those emission widths at the inlet aperture, or smaller widths than those emission widths at the tip, are allowed.

(48) If the tip is truncated or otherwise allows passage of at least some of the spectral components that were admitted by the aperture, the highest frequency in the spectral range of interest for the CRTR is defined by the longest wavelength that will be emitted via the cladding. If the tip does not allow energy to pass therethrough, the highest frequency in the spectral range of interest for the CRTR is the highest frequency to be emitted via the cladding, and detected or reflected by any desired manner.

(49) The spectral range of interest for a CRTR operated in mixer mode is the range between the highest and lowest frequencies of radiant energy injected into the tapered core via the cladding. In hybrid and reflective modes of operation the spectral range of interest for the CRTR is a combination of the above ranges, as dictated by the application at hand. Notably, all of those spectral ranges of interest are defined for the CRTR. Portions of the CRTR or other elements of the invention may have different ranges of interest.

(50) The cladding penetration mode of the CRTR may be CPS-FTIR, or CPS-SRC, or a combination thereof.

(51) As described above, waveguides have a cutoff frequency, which is dictated by the wavelength in the waveguide materials, and the waveguide width. As the frequency of the energy propagating in the waveguide approaches the cutoff frequency Fc, the energy propagation speed along the depth of waveguide is slowed down. The energy propagation of a wave may be considered as having a depth dependent varying angle θ relative to the propagation direction, and thus also relative to the cladding, until a CPS is reached.

(52) If the cladding walls are comparable in width, w, to the skin penetration depth, δ, then energy will transfer across the cladding through frustrated total internal reflection (FTIR) with a transmitted power fraction proportional to exp(−2 w/δ).

(53) Similarly, if metal cladding is used, and the metal cladding is on the order of the skin penetration depth, δ, which is determined by the resistivity, ρ, radian frequency, ω=2πF, and permeability, μ, as

(54) $\delta =\sqrt{\frac{2\rho }{\mathrm{\omega \mu }}},$
then energy will also partially transmit through the metal cladding in proportion to exp(−2 w/δ).

(55) While operating in splitter mode, refraction by the CRTR occurs in such fashion that spectral components exit the cladding along its side. Even for metal-clad waveguides in which the cladding penetration state may in some cases be reached near the stationary resonance condition, refraction is seldom or never perfectly perpendicular to the waveguide axis. This angle will in most cases be closer to 90° in conductor clad waveguide and further from 90° in dielectric cladding. The angle may be computed utilizing the refractive indices of the core material, the cladding, and any surrounding medium, by simulation, or may simply be determined empirically.

(56) Energy 730 in the spectral range of interest is incident on the waveguide at its aperture, at an angle which permits energy admission. Waves having a lower frequency than the cutoff frequency F.sub.min are reflected 735. Waves 740 having frequency higher than F.sub.max exit through the tip of the tapered waveguide if an exit exists. Waves having a frequency between F.sub.min and F.sub.max will reach their emission width, and thus their cladding penetration state, at some distance from the aperture of the waveguide depending on their frequency, as shown schematically by arrows 750 and 752.

(57) In general terms then, when multi-frequency radiant energy is admitted through the CRTR aperture, lower-frequency waves will reach their emission depth before higher-frequency waves, due to their longer wavelength and the taper of the core. As the wave energy departs the CRTR at its emission depth, lower-frequency wave would penetrate the cladding and exit closer to the aperture than higher-frequency wave. Thus, the CRTR will provide spatially separated spectral components along its cladding, while at the same time refracting the spatially separated energy away from the depth axis of the CRTR.

(58) Examining the behavior of a wave of arbitrary frequency F.sub.t, where F.sub.min<F.sub.t<F.sub.max, which enters into the waveguide at its aperture at an incidence angle nominally parallel to the propagation axis X-X, the angle θ between the wave and X-X will vary as the wave propagates along the X-X axis due to the narrowing of the waveguide and increase of the cutoff frequency, as depicted schematically by F.sub.t. As the wave approaches emission depth X(F.sub.t) where either the tapered waveguide cutoff frequency equals or nearly equals F.sub.t, or the angle θ approaches the critical angle θ.sub.c, the wave cannot propagate any further within the CRTR core. The wave F.sub.t is thus either radiated through the cladding of the waveguide or is trapped in resonance at depth X(F.sub.t). Considering a perfectly reflective cladding, for a continuum of waves of different frequencies F.sub.min<F1, F2, . . . F.sub.x<F.sub.max, admitted via the aperture of the tapered waveguide 71, the waveguide becomes a continuous resonant trap, in which without cladding penetration the waves of different frequencies become standing waves, trapped at resonance in accordance to their frequency along the X-X axis. Such trapped waves however are either leaked through the cladding by the finite probability of “tunneling” though the cladding or are lost to absorption in the waveguide. If the cladding may be penetrated, the tapered core waveguide becomes a continuous resonant trap refractor (CRTR), as the waves are also refracted from the depth axis. This refraction allows directing specific spectral components of the incoming spectrum to predetermined target zones and provides special separating of the spectrum.

(59) The skilled in the art would also recognize that while this simplified explanation describes waves entering the CRTR in parallel orientation to the X-X axis, the operation will be similar on waves having any angle of incidence which is admittable by the waveguide construction.

(60) The tip may be open in the sense that it does not hinder passage of some radiation therethrough, or closed in the sense that it blocks at least a portion of the spectral range of interest. In embodiments where the tip does not taper to a point, energy 740 may be allowed to exit the tip end of the CRTR, or a mirror may be formed at the tip, to reflect unwanted energy back through the aperture.

(61) FIG. 5 shows a cutout of a stratum 503 in which a CRTR 71 is embedded. The stratum in this example comprises lateral waveguides—a plurality of stacked waveguides 550a-e, into which the energy entering the aperture h.sub.max is coupled in a frequency sorted fashion. The figure depicts a simplified path of a wave 504 incident onto a tapered waveguide core 501 and refracted into a waveguide mode. The waveguide mode is generally illustrated by rays 505, 506, and 507 of ever larger angle relative to the waveguide boundary. In the case of a dielectric clad waveguide, there exists a critical angle beyond which total internal reflection will not occur and the wave is refracted instead of reflected. At a location along the waveguide where the width is slightly larger than that resulting in a SRC, the ray angle will exceed the critical angle for total internal reflection and will instead be refracted 508 in the cladding 710. Stated differently, the ray will reach its emission width and thus its cladding penetration state. For dielectric clad CRTR, the ratio of the core and cladding dielectric constants determines the critical angle above which total internal reflection cannot occur. Below this angle, and therefore above a critical frequency, there is a finite penetration, δ into the cladding. Note that δ increase with decreasing frequency. At a critical emission depth, above the cutoff frequency, the critical angle for total internal reflection is reached and the wave will no longer be guided and therefore exits the CRTR before the cutoff frequency depth. If the structural material of waveguide 550e has an index of refraction higher than that of the cladding, then the ray will refract again, becoming trapped in judiciously located lateral waveguide 550e, and will propagate 509 in that waveguide. The ratio of the cladding and transducer dielectric constants determines the angle of emission, which will always be directed downward slightly from perpendicular for a cladding having lower refractive index than that of the core.

(62) Spectral components of lower frequencies will exit in a similar manner at a wider point in the tapered waveguide 501, being directed to earlier lateral waveguides such as 550 a-d, and higher frequency spectral components will exit deeper into the tapered reflector (not shown).

(63) The energy may be directed to transducers which may be detectors for detection of different frequencies, to absorbers for harvesting electrical energy, to RL type transducers, or to any combination thereof. If a specific frequency is reflected back into the CRTR core by a RL transducer or even a simple fixed reflector, it will be emitted via the aperture. In the case of combiners, the lateral waveguide may have light sources embedded therein. The transducers may be housed within the stratum or outside thereof. FIG. 5a depicts an embodiment where the stratum 2012 comprises bulk material in which the sorted energy propagates. In the depicted embodiment, the CRTRs 2008 and 2009 separate incoming light into Red, Green and Blue (RGB) primary colors, and those colors are detected respectively by transducers 2002, 2003, and 2004 for CRTR 2008, and transducers 2005, 2006, and 2007 for CRTR 2009, The transducers are shown in a substrate 1200. While this is one alternative construction, the transducers may be located in the stratum, and/or in lateral waveguides, and the selection of the location of the transducers is a matter of technical choice.

(64) As noted, CRTR use may extend to the millimeter wave range (EHF), or even to the microwave range. Depending on where between cm waves and micron IR the range of dielectric constants available increases dramatically. By way of example, water has an index of refraction of nearly 10 at radio frequencies but only 1.5 at IR to UV. There are numerous optical materials with low and high index at mm wave frequencies and below. Thus while the principles of operation of CRTRs are similar, the materials and sizes differ. A millimeter/microwave operated CRTR is a channelized filter integrated into a horn antenna wherein the channelized ports are lateral to the horn and the in-line exit port is a high pass filtered output for a broad band input. Such device may be utilized as a an excellent front end for a multiplexer/diplexer, and as a general purpose antenna that has excellent noise figure and improved anti-jamming as those characteristics are determined at the front en of devices which use them.

(65) FIG. 6 depicts a cross-section of a CRTR array 900 with several optional construction details. An optional lens 980 may be disposed on top of the CRTR or on top of high pass filter 901. In certain embodiments, the high pass filter is incorporated into the lens. Use of a lens can modify the angle of acceptance of CRTR. The apertures of CRTRs 902, 903, and 904 are contiguous or nearly contiguous at the inlet surface, providing effectively complete collection of incident radiant energy. By making the apertures 960 of the CRTRs wider than the critical width at the lowest frequency of interest, F.sub.MIN, 961 all desired frequencies are accepted into the waveguides. A tradeoff exists where the wider the aperture, the narrower the acceptance angular range for any given frequency of light. Managing that tradeoff is an implementation dependent engineering choice. As the refractors taper, there exists space therebetween 963 for transducers 911, 912, 913. FIG. 6 further presents two optional features, namely the stepped taper present in the core of CRTR 903, and an optional excess handler 931, at the tip of CRTR 902. Radiant energy having higher frequency than a desired range may be handled by an excess handler 931. Excess handler 931 may be a reflector which reflects energy of shorter wavelengths than the energy that was refracted through the cladding back towards the aperture, and the energy is reflected from the CRTR. Alternately the excess handler 931 may be a high energy transducer located at the CRTR tip to convert all of the energy that was not refracted. Use of an excess handler is advantageous to reduce heat buildup, and other ill effects of such energy, or for maximizing the energy recovery of the device. Thus, by way of example if the CRTR is designed to receive light from the IR range to the purple, UV energy which enters the CRTR is reflected by a reflector that acts as an excess handler 931, and is re-radiated outside the aperture, preventing damage to UV sensitive materials within the CRTR or its surrounding media.

(66) CRTRs may be manufactured by a variety of methods, and are generally embedded in a stratum in most cases. The stratum may form a single material which allows radiant energy of the spectrum of interest to propagate therethrough, or may contain a plurality of transducers arranged in layers such that each transducer is positioned to receive its own spectral component from the CRTR. A common way comprises providing the desired stratum, and forming pits therein by processes such as ion milling, reactive ion etch, focused ion beam, and the like, the cladding material is then deposited into the pits, and the core is formed thereabove. In another exemplary manufacture, the CRTRs are formed by providing a substrate, forming pits therein, flowing cladding material and providing a ‘stamp’ which is an object that has CRTR cores protruding therefrom. The stamp may be removable or form a portion of a device once manufacture is complete. In certain embodiments, the pits are tapered, and in certain embodiments the pits have vertical walls, which simplifies manufacturing. Cladding material may be disposed on the lens/stamp, or may be present in the pits prior to alignment and mating. In some cases the cladding may be a fluid which may or may not be solidified at a later stage. The stamp may be removed in certain embodiments, but may also form a portion of the resulting device, such as forming a lens, a high pass filter, a sealant portion, a mount and the like.

(67) In the case of conductive cladding material the dielectric constant of the core material 606 is arbitrary. However if the stratum comprises lateral waveguides which may be shorted by the cladding, a dielectric intermediate material is needed.

(68) It is noted that light emitters disposed about the cladding are able to couple waves into the CRTR at frequency selective locations, resulting in light emitted at the aperture of the CRTR being the combination of light inserted along the CRTR. Thus the CRTR becomes a linear optical mixer or combiner (the terms mixer and combiner being used interchangeably). While light is utilized in the following example, the spectrum of interest may cover any portion of the spectrum.

(69) FIG. 7 depicts a CRTR acting as a combiner, in combination with optional optical switches. Radiant energy sources 142, 147, 149, are each of different frequency, which by way of example would be considered to be red, green and blue, respectively. The radiant energy sources are disposed such that their emission will be inserted to the tapered core adjacent to, or at, the cladding penetration depth for their respective frequency to provide good coupling into the CRTR, or stated differently, at their coupling depth. Alternatively the coupling depth may be set for a higher order mode of the wave being coupled. As the radiant energy is presented beyond the critical angle of the cladding, it will penetrate the cladding, the energy will be admitted into the core and will be mixed with other injected spectral components. The combined multi-spectral radiant energy 141 will be emitted from the aperture of the CRTR, after accounting to losses within the structure.

(70) Stated differently, energy emitted from energy sources whose output is to be mixed, would follow a path via an intermediate material such as the lateral waveguide core, buffers, and/or other material, to the cladding, and thru the cladding to the CRTR core. For best coupling of the energy to the core, the coupling depth will be about the fundamental half wavelength of the frequency being injected.

(71) Optionally, light modulators 144R, 144G, and 144B, such as liquid crystal material, switchable mirrors, and the like, are provided to modulate light entering the CRTR. Optionally, in an array of CRTRs, use of such optical switches will allow usage of a single light source 142, 147, 149 to provide controlled light to a plurality of CRTRs.

(72) The choice of the number of light sources and waveguides is not limited to three or to the specific colors in this example. White light may be used, obtaining similar results by relying upon the filtering inherent in coupling to the CRTR, and the white light would act instead of, or in addition to, one or more individual light sources 142, 147, 149. The same principle of operation may be utilized to combine other portions of the spectrum, such as MWIR, LWIR, EHF, and the like.

(73) In some embodiments, light modulators 142, 147, and 149 act as controllable reflectors, namely a RL transducer, and are disposed about the CRTR and selectively reflect at least a portion of the light refracted from the CRTR core, back to into the CRTR core. In the example depicted in FIG. 7, The light reflected into the core will be emitted back out via the aperture. The resulting reflective pixel will thus re-radiate a selectable portion of the original aperture-emitted spectrum, to provide an outputted light of a desired color, while the energy not reflected will be absorbed into the stratum, or otherwise directed away from the aperture. By reflecting light of the primary colors at varying proportions back into the CRTR core, a wide range of perceived colors may be outputted from the aperture. Such structure provides a pixel operating passively from incoming light and utilizing merely the power required to maintain the RL transducers at a desired state. By way of example, such reflecting light modulators may be created from liquid crystals which require very low energy, from micro-mirrors, by way of example, but piezoelectric, piezomagnetic, and certain semiconductor combinations may be utilized. An array of CRTR based pixels combined with RL transducers will form a passive, “true-color” display panel, optionally with different colors and at different polarizations. Arrays of passive pixels utilizing reflected light may be utilized to form very low power display panel, similar to those colloquially known as “digital ink” or E ink” displays.

(74) If energy transducers are placed in combination with light sources or reflectors along a CRTR's depth direction, the combination may be utilized for a combined power harvesting device and a display. Thus, by way of example, if 144R, 144G, and 144B are controllable reflectors or light sources located at emission depths of red, green, and blue colors respectively, energy harvesting transducers 146 and 148 may be disposed at emission depths differing from those primary colors, and the energy harvested therefrom may be utilized to power light sources or refractors, and their adjoining driving circuitry. Panels containing a plurality of CRTRs embedded in supporting material containing energy harvesting transducers in combination with reflectors or light sources will provide a self energizing panel which may be used for self powering digital ink displays, an active light emitting panel, or a panel with large grain color change, such as covering panels for structures, vehicles, and the like.

(75) Circular CRTR apertures offer polarization independent emission from the CRTR, where the polarization depends only on the radiant energy admitted via the aperture. In combiner mode energy emitted from the aperture will be polarization neutral, and in a CRTR operating in splitter mode, energy will be emitted from the CRTR periphery will be polarization neutral. However, CRTR tapered cores do not require geometrical symmetry, nor a constant width about the depth axis. If desired, cross-sections such as elliptical, rectangular, and other geometries may be used to provide a CRTR with polarized response, if such is desired.

(76) The devices shown in FIGS. 8a, -8e permit individual detection or control with respect to a plurality of energy polarizations.

(77) FIG. 8a depicts a CRTR with elliptical core cross-section in a width plane, by way of example of but one possible asymmetrical CRTR 2020. Radiant energy of polarization Ey would enter the CRTR aperture 2030, and would exit the CRTR and impinge on a surface or a transducers group 2045, while light entering the CRTR with polarization Ez would impinge on the surface or a transducers group 2040 at a different depth. It is noted that the elliptical shape is not mandatory and other elongated shapes are also considered.

(78) FIGS. 8b-8d represent a simple example of a multifaceted symmetrical CRTR core. Using multifaceted core such as square, hexagonal, octagonal shapes and the like provide multi-polarization separation. FIG. 8b represent an elevation and 8c represents a perspective view of one CRTR having a square core 1050, and transducers 1052 and 1057 which will detect energy at respective 90° polarization to each other. While 8b depicts transducers for a single frequency but with differing polarization, FIG. 8c shows the combination of frequency and polarization detection or mixing. While the CRTR 1050 operates in splitter mode, radiant energy 1055 is admitted to the CRTR core 1050 via the aperture and travels along the depth direction towards the tip. The energy is divided between the different transducers groups 1052 (R, G, and B), 1054 (R, G, and B), such that each transducer receives a spectral component separated by polarization as well as by frequency. Thus by way of example, the pair 1052r and 1054r would each receive a spectral component of a red frequency, but of differing polarization, and similarly transducers 1052g and 1054g would receive a spectral component of a green frequency but with differing polarization, and transducers 1052b and 1054b will have the same with blue frequency. Clearly, if desired a single frequency band may be detected by including only a pair of transducers, or polarization only may be detected for a wider range of frequencies by directing the multi-frequency spectral components emitted from varying depths into a single transducer for each polarization.

(79) Asymmetrical tapered core cross-sections operate similar to multifaceted cores, where energy is sorted by polarization according to the shape axes. Not every asymmetrical cross-section would result in usable polarization dependent spectral separation, but generally shapes having a plurality of axes, and especially shapes having symmetry about at least one of the axes, while not necessarily about all axes, will tend to exhibit polarization selectivity. However for brevity it is assumed that when ‘multi-faceted symmetry’ core is used, unless clear form the context, the term extends to include asymmetrical core shapes that function to provide polarization selectivity.

(80) As the CRTR was shown to act symmetrically in splitter mode, the same arrangement would act to mix spectral components of narrow band energy sources, into a broader, multi-frequency radiant energy, where the narrower spectrum sources would be directed towards the core and couple thereto at an angle projected on the width plane. In combiner mode, energy is inserted to the CRTR through the cladding and is outputted via the aperture. Thus if the units marked transducers 1052 and 1054 (R, G, and B, respectively) represent a plurality of light source at different angular locations about the depth dimension of the CRTR, it would result in polarized light corresponding to the location and frequency of the light sources being emitted from the aperture. An exemplary top view is provided in FIG. 8e, where light sources 1072 and 1074 are disposed about the CRTR at 90° relative angle, which will result in individually controlled horizontal and vertical polarized light emitted from the CRTR aperture. It is noted that additional energy sources may be disposed on the opposite sides of the CRTR. The depicted round shape of the CRTR is representative of any desired core shape.

(81) The skilled in the art would readily recognize that a hexagon would provide light polarized at 120° as depicted by hexagonal CRTR 1060, where each of the transducer pairs 1062, 1064, and 1066 detects incoming energy polarized at 120° respectively. Similarly, octagonal CRTR would provide 45° relative polarization separation, and the like. It is noted that even if the core is formed into such cross-section at only a portion of its depth, the polarization of the polarized light or a portion thereof would be so filtered into the various components due to the physics of cladding penetration and waveguide resonance and detection of a plurality of polarization is thus enabled.

(82) The following is but one example provided to demonstrate design considerations for a CRTR. In order to meaningfully discuss dimensions in a CRTR, first the angle-dependent transmissivity through a dielectric for a parylene-N cladding (n=1.661) and AlN core (n=2.165) in a stratum with n=2.2. The critical emission angle is 39.9° and occurs when the frequency is 1.556 times the resonant trapping frequency.

(83) Three-quarters of the available power at a given frequency will penetrate the cladding over an angular arc from the −6 dB point to just above the critical angle. It is desired that the emitted beam be as narrow as possible and emit over as short a region of CRTR walls corresponding to the depth direction as possible. A basic span of 2° of arc is selected in the design example provided herein. In Parylene-N this condition is achieved at a thickness of 0.137λo, where λo is the free space wavelength. Realizing that the wavelength is shortened by 1.661 in parylene-N, the thickness normalized to the local wavelength is 0.228λ′.sub.clad. Preferably the thickness would be at least 0.243λo (0.4λ.sub.clad) to obtain less than 1° of angular spread. This relationship shows the advantage of having the thickness of the cladding change as a function of the depth to optimize transmissivity of each wavelength.

(84) At another extreme, all tolerances are relative to the dimension being controlled. Making a CRTR pit thicker than the target and then backfilling with cladding, as is done in some embodiments, results in a CRTR tolerance that is the sum of an error proportional to the pit diameter plus an error proportional to twice the cladding thickness. At a thickness of 0.8λ for the cladding there would be twice the error in cladding thickness as there would be for the 0.4λ cladding thickness and the pit error would also be larger. The end result would be excessive error in the vertical location of the cladding penetration state. For this reason, Bragg gratings, which necessitate at least three layers of 0.25λ with alternating index of refraction, are impractical for CRTR claddings, and cladding thickness below half wavelength, and even below quarter wavelength is desired while cladding thickness of 0.75 wavelength and above is undesirable using current construction technology. In metal cladding, the desired cladding thickness is in order of the penetration depth.

(85) A phased array antenna is an antenna composed of a plurality of radiating elements being fed via phase controller which allows changing the phase between different antennas for transmitting antenna, and measuring phase difference between received signals. During transmit operations, beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each radiating element, to provide constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the beams in the desired direction. Phased arrays are common in the radar field, but have applications elsewhere. When mounted on a moving platform phased arrays are often used to form Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) which provides high resolution by repeated ‘illumination’ of a target by pulses and synthetically computing a model of the scanned target.

(86) As CRTRs may be used well into the EHF range, and possibly even for longer waves, they act as an antenna either for transmission or for reception, as well as for mixing signals. However in the range of visible and UV imaging, the ability for fine control of a very narrow beam of light is utilized in many applications such as semiconductor manufacturing, scanning microscopes, and the like. The added capability of the CRTR to control multiple polarizations further assists in providing finer control of the beam characteristics, including, by way of example, utilizing interference of differing frequencies and differing between different polarizations. Thus the CRTR based phased array antenna is useful throughout the range of millimeter waves well into the UV range.

(87) CRTRs may be utilized as a general purpose antenna that has excellent noise figure and improved anti-jamming as those characteristics are determined at the front end of receivers. Furthermore, at the microwave/millimeters wave range material selection is dramatically increased. Most materials have frequency dependent dielectric constant, which is high in the IR, EHF, and microwave range, but this dielectric constant drops rapidly at the visual and near IR domains. By way of example, water has an index of refraction of nearly 10 at radio frequencies but only 1.5 at IR to UV. There are numerous optical materials with low and high index at millimeter wave frequencies and below. Thus while the principles of operation of the CRTR are the same as for the optical domain, the materials and sizes differ, and manufacturing is easier. CRTR based phased array antennas offer advantages, as described above, in many areas such as communications by narrow beam, designation of a target with visible or invisible light, to photolithography of nanometer sized features.

(88) FIG. 10 depicts a portion of a larger array operating as a phased array antenna. Firstly, separators 77 isolate each CRTR from other CRTRs so that each CRTR 902, 903, 904, operates as an independent radiating element. A transmitting antenna is described, but a receiving antenna will operate similarly if receivers are utilized. Radiating source type EL transducers 1101, 1102, and 1103 couple energy of a first frequency via the cladding into the respective CRTR core. Phase controller 11600 controls the relative phase of signals going to the radiating sources, and thus the phase of the signals emitted from each individual CRTR. As known, the phase difference causes the beam emitted from the CRTR array to have a direction that may be modified by controlling the phase difference between individual elements. Beam forming and shaping by changing phase and/or intensity relationship between a plurality of transmitting elements is well known in phased array antennas.

(89) Optionally radiating source transducers such as 1120, 1121, and 1122 couple energy at a second frequency via the cladding into the respective CRTR core. As the CRTR is capable of mixing signals of very broad band, the antenna array can be used to send more than one beam and steer the beams individually. Those beams may be formed sequentially or simultaneously.

(90) Thus each CRTR and its associated transducers form a versatile transmitting element, and the array can steer a beam emitted form that antenna by the phase controller. Notable, when configured for receiving operation by having LE type transducers coupled to the CRTRs, the phased array antenna can provide information regarding the direction of incoming signals using similar techniques, by observing the phase differences and/or intensities, rather than by transmitting. The phase controller 11600 therefore is substituted with a signal processor.

(91) The transducers may be of any desired type, and frequency befitting the task at hand, including laser, EHF, microwave, visible light, UV light, and the like. As stated above, transducers may be placed so as to receive radiant energy entering the CRTRs, forming a receiving antenna, where the receiving direction is detected by the relative phase of signals received from a plurality of CRTRs. While most phased array antennas operate best at a specific frequency and its harmonic, the broad-band nature of the CRTR allows a phased array receiving antenna of very broad spectrum. Such antenna is very useful for signal intelligence gathering.

(92) Notably, radiant sources may also a plurality of lasers, which will allow directing a laser beam to a desired direction, at high intensity due to constructive interference.

(93) A receiving CRTR operating with a plurality of transducers in varying depths forms a channelized filter integrated into a horn antenna wherein the channelized ports are lateral to the horn and the tip exit port is a high pass filtered output for a broad band input. Therefore the CRTR acts not merely as a side fed horn antenna, but taking the signal from each transducer allows handling of sub-bands separately, reducing noise and increasing antenna merit. Therefore, there is provided a front end for electromagnetic radiant energy receiver, comprising at least one, and preferably a plurality of CRTR's having a plurality of transducers arranged to receive differing frequency bands. Each of the transducers of a single CRTR forms a channel of a predetermined frequency band. If a plurality of CRTRs are used in combination, respective members of the plurality of transducers may be coupled together.

(94) FIG. 10A depicts a cross-section of a tapered core 905 for a CRTR, showing an optional center member 906 extending along the depth dimension. The member may comprise a different material than the core, or may form a void. In certain embodiments such member allows an increase in the core diameter, which eases manufacturing. The member may be formed prior to creating the core by filling, deposition, material removal, and the like.

(95) FIGS. 11A, 11B, and 11C depict a manufacturing method for the CRTRs. The method accommodates relatively imprecise etching of the CRTR outer dimensions which is done by any desired method, such as wet etch, plasma etch, reactive ion etch, “Lithography, Electroplating, and Molding” (Colloquially known as LIGAz-Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung), ion milling, laser etch, and the like. A stratum 1012 is deposited over substrate 1200. The stratum may be formed with lateral waveguides as shown, or as a slab stratum. Optionally other layers such as protective cap layer, buffer layers, and the like, are also deposited. The stratum is etched with pits 1275 defining the CRTR outer shapes. The term pits in this context are the voids in the stratum into which the CRTR's are created or placed, including the cladding and the cores.

(96) A stamp 1270 having protrusions 1271 corresponding to the CRTR cores is provided for insertion into the pits in the stratum, as shown in FIG. 11B. In one optional embodiment, a filler dielectric material 1277B is disposed within the pits, and the stamp is aligned and inserted such that the pits and the protrusions are in registration. The cladding material is displaced into the desired shape by the insertion of the stamp.

(97) In other embodiments the stamp protrusions 127 are first covered with dielectric material 1277A. The stamp is then inserted aligned and inserted such that the protrusions and the pits are in registration.

(98) In some embodiments the stamp is aligned and inserted as described, and cladding material is flowed into the pits, filling the spaces between the pits and the stamp. The cladding material may then be cured in place if desired. Regardless of the placement method, the goal is to place the dielectric material within the pits between the stratum and the protrusions. Thus the dielectric material 1277A, 1277B, or the flowed material described above, shall all be related to as numeral 1277. FIGS. 11B and 11C show the stratum and the stamp after mating.

(99) The dielectric material may comprise a UV curable material, a thermoset polymer, a self-curing polymer, a glass, a dielectric fluid, optionally including gas or air, and the like. In some embodiments, the dielectric material itself forms the cladding, while in other embodiments it acts only as an intermediary, or a portion of the cladding. In embodiments were the dielectric described above is an intermediate material, the protrusions may be coated with the cladding, which may be made of thin and/or perforated metal, or another dielectric material, and then dielectric material 1277 is disposed as described above.

(100) Optionally, the cladding material comprises a powder and the process is performed at a temperature in which the powder flows about the stamp. Alternatively, the stamp is heated to melt the powder.

(101) In some embodiments, the dielectric material 1277 planarizes the imprecise formation of the etched pits 1275.

(102) In certain embodiments the stamp, or a portion thereof, is made of radiant energy transmissive material while in other embodiments the stamp is withdrawn and core materials is deposited at the voids where the protrusion existed when the stamp and stratum were mated. In embodiments where the stamp 1270 is left in the device, it may also be formed to any desired shape to accommodate the intended use of the device. Thus the stamp may form structure such as a protective layer, anti-reflective layer, collimation layer having collimators place on top of the CRTR's apertures, concentrators, mirrors, lenses, and the like. When a stamp is left in the device, it may be referred to as a cover, as it provides a cover to the stratum, and optionally also acts as a sealant to fluid that may be utilized for the cladding.

(103) This construction allows for a wide variety of techniques and materials for depositing the cladding materials. In some embodiments a fluid is used as the cladding, and the stamp acts as a seal, while the protrusions serve as the CRTR cores. In embodiments where the cladding is UV curable, the UV may be applied via the stamp. Dies and jigs may be used to facilitate the alignment process.

(104) FIG. 11C depicts a cross-section of CRTRs formed after the stamp and the stratum has been mated. However this embodiment depicts certain optional feature. First, it depicts the option where for ease of manufacturing, the pits 1275 are formed larger than the size necessitated by the outer dimension of the cladding, if the cladding follows the tapered core. Doing so allows higher manufacturing tolerance as the pits may be made larger, and in some embodiments may be made vertical, near vertical, or, as commonly happens during etching, have scalloped walls. Further optionally, an intermediate material 1290 may be disposed within the pits. The cladding 1277 may in such embodiment be disposed on the stamp protrusions 1271, which is advantageous for embodiments where the cladding is metallic, but can also be applied to dielectric material. The stamp and stratum are aligned and joined. In some embodiments the intermediate material is hardened after the mating. In certain embodiment the intermediate material is a fluid.

(105) The stamp based embodiment offers several additional options. In one embodiments, the cladding is made thicker to fill all the space between the core and the pit wall. Such embodiment may require a dipper pit, as the path of the light refracted from the CRTR core would be angled downward and will take longer distance to reach the transducer. In such case material 1290 would be the actual cladding material. In certain other embodiments the intermediate material may act as an insulator to prevent shorting of the lateral waveguides by a metallic cladding 1280.

(106) FIG. 11D is a detail cross-section of the optional method of creating CRTRs using a stamp. This example utilizes a slab stratum. A plurality of transducers 1273 is formed on a substrate 1200. The substrate has optional sidewall or walls 1274 which extend above the substrate, and is formed to receive the stamp therein. The optional sidewalls form a retaining wall for cladding material. The stamp 1270 has a plurality of protrusions 1271 projecting therefrom, the protrusions being dimensioned as CRTR cores, and will indeed become the CRTR core if the stamp material is transparent to the intended radiant energy, and the stamp becomes integral to the device. Cladding material 1277 is disposed on the substrate, and the stamp is mated with the substrate. When the stamp is placed on the substrate, it displaces the cladding material. In an optional embodiment, the stamp is disposed on top of the substrate, and the cladding material is flowed into the spaces between the stamp and substrate. In both methods, the cladding material may be hardened or it may be a fluid. The optional side walls 1274 serve to hold fluid cladding material if used, to facilitate alignment of the stamp, and in some embodiment form a seal to prevent escape of cladding material. By utilizing this method the CRTR is formed in a slab type stratum, which is created by the cladding material 1277. The transducers 1273 are disposed about each core, to receive radiant energy emanating therefrome. If the cladding material is hardenable, as described for embodiments above, the side walls may not be required after the hardening. In such construction the sidewalls may be separate from the structure as a whole. The skilled in the art would recognize that the cladding material may be applied to the stamp rather than the substrate, and that the side walls, if utilized, may be applied to the stamp as well.

(107) Core materials and cladding materials may comprise a plurality of materials as desired to change the refractive index or other light propagation and guiding characteristics of the structure as a whole. By way of non-limiting example, the core material may comprise layers of material with varying light propagation speeds, which may drastically alter the physical profile of the CRTR core, while maintaining the desired taper with respect to wave propagation therein.

(108) In one particular embodiment, the stamp/cover comprises a lens, or is formed as a lens after production of the CRTR's. Such lens would serve to capture light and other radiant energy and bring it to focus at plane of the CRTR apertures, or an extension thereof. By way of example, FIG. 12 depicts an embodiment where the stamp/cover is formed to act as a lens, with an outer surface 1291, while having the CRTR cores 1271 being formed on the opposite surface. The pits 1275 are formed on the substrate 1200, the stamp is aligned and inserted into the CRTR pits 1275, and the space between the cores and the stratum is filled with the cladding material by one of the methods described above.

(109) In some embodiments lens 1270 has planarization surface 2905 and electrical interconnects 2925 connecting to electrical connections 2930 on substrate or die 1200. Optional encapsulant or package body (not shown) completes an electronic package for the device. The lens may form a portion of a larger optical system.

(110) Thus, in certain embodiments, there is provided an array comprising a plurality of CRTRs which may be operated as splitters, combiners, reflective, or hybrid CRTRs. The array comprising a stratum having a plurality of pits formed therein, the pits being defined by pit walls, at least some of the pits being dimensioned to receive therein at least a portion of the core and cladding of a CRTR. A cover transmissive of radiant energy within a spectral range of interest of the device, has a plurality of protrusions extending therefrom, at least one of the protrusions being dimensioned to act as the core of at least one of the plurality of CRTRs, is disposed in registration with a pit. A cladding is disposed between the protrusion and at least one of the walls of the respective pit, such that the protrusion acts as a core to the CRT formed in combination with the cladding.

(111) Generally, in the creation of CRTRs, for the cladding, core, and intermediate material if one is used, it is permissible to use air, inert gas, or a cooling liquid of controlled dielectric constant and sufficiently low optical absorbance. Perfluoropolyether and fluoroalkane liquids have very reproducible properties, excellent optical transparency, low viscosity and good wetting to hydrophobic metals. Mixtures of related fluids may be used to tune the dielectric constant in operation. These materials have excellent heat transfer properties and could be used to remove excess heat by flowing in the z-direction along defined ridges if the etched regions form long slots.

(112) Both low-k and high-k solid dielectrics are also suitable to the metal clad system; dielectric cladding favors low-k solids such as aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, or polymers for the cladding and high-k transparent materials for the core. Water and other aqueous liquids allow the same fluid cooled system while using an alcohol/water or other suitable mixture to continuously adjust the dielectric constant of the core. Hafnium oxide is a well-known high-k material from the semiconductor industry.

(113) With respect to the CRTR, the term “tip” denotes the end opposite the aperture, which is commonly the narrow end of the CRTR core. The tip may be flat, tapered to a point, rounded, cylindrical, or having any desired shape. The tip may even extend to a broad end, after narrowing down. In such case the tip is considered the narrowest point in the waveguide.

(114) Lately, stereoscopic displays appear in many devices. Such displays provide an illusion of three dimensional objects and are colloquially known as “3D displays”, or 3 dimensional displays. It is noted that those devices are not truly three dimensional, but create the three dimensional illusion at the viewer's brain. The skilled in the art would recognize that the CRTRs in general, and most specifically CRTRs acting as mixers, will offer significant advantages to regular displays as well as to three dimensional displays. For two dimensional displays the CRTR offer unique advantages in the field of micro displays, such as wearable displays and the like. For stereoscopic displays the CRTR offers the advantage of allowing two separate signals to be emitted, each with its own polarization. A plurality of CRTRs operating in mixer mode, in combinations with respective plurality of controllable light sources will create a display. If the light sources are disposed to provide polarization information a 3D display is formed. 3D display of this type will be very compact and present multiple advantage over the present complex construction. In both 2D and 3D embodiments, the display will provide high efficiency and very small pixel size. Furthermore, the stacked nature of the lateral guides offers simplified wiring as the space between the lateral waveguides may be utilized for wiring each individual layer.

(115) As different embodiments of the present invention is applicable to many roles, applications, and functions, and as the structures at the base of the invention cover a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, it is recognized that different disciplines often use different terms for items that would represent similar concepts in differing fields. This broad applicability points for a need to use words that depart somewhat from the strict common usage in a specific field, yet such terms are either be well defined in the specifications, or will be clear to the skilled in the art by analogy, and in light of the teachings provided hereinabove. By way of example these specifications uses terms such as electromagnetic radiation and radiant energy interchangeably. Similarly, the term ‘refractor’ and ‘splitter’ or ‘spectral splitter’ will be used interchangeably, as well as ‘mixer’ and ‘combiner’. Certain expressions, such as for example the term ‘refractor’ denotes a device which imparts an angle change to radiant energy, regardless of specific mechanisms, whether they relate to light or to any other part of the spectrum, and regardless of the specific mechanism utilized to impart that angle change. The term ‘polychromatic’, ‘multi-frequency’ and ‘mixed frequency’ are also be used interchangeably, and denote an electromagnetic energy which comprises a plurality of spectral components. The electromagnetic energy components may be spectral components, i.e., components of different frequencies. Alternatively or additionally, the electromagnetic wave components may be of different polarizations, whether or not of differing frequencies. Notably, the terms extend throughout the spectral range of interest.

(116) A basic building block of most embodiments of the present invention involves a waveguide having a tapered core. The terms ‘tapered core waveguide’ and ‘tapered waveguide’ are used interchangeably. While the waveguide including the cladding may be tapered, the requirement for that building block is for the at least the core to be tapered. Furthermore, the term “tapering” and “taper” should be construed that the taper may have different widths at different locations, or stated differently, that the width of the core in at least one direction, changes as a function of depth. The term taper denotes more than a pure linear taper, i.e. a straight line connecting two points on the base and tip as seen in a cone. For example, in some embodiments, the core width monotonically decreases as one proceeds from a wider base to a narrower tip, while in other embodiments other functions may be utilized such as stepped function, logarithmic function, or any other desired function. Furthermore, the width may vary to different extent within a single depth, as seen for example in the cores depicted in FIG. 8. The term substantially implies that the associated condition or limitation is fulfilled within tolerances which permit operation as described. By way of example, while a certain component may be described as transverse, or being at 90 degrees to another, the skilled in the art would recognize that certain tolerance exists and that as long as the purpose of the limitation is served within such tolerance, the component or limitation is considered fulfilled.

(117) Note, however, that use of the foregoing and similar terms of art should not be construed as necessarily limiting all embodiments to modes of operation suggested by the strict technical senses of the terms employed. The novel nature of the invention necessitate certain lexicographical freedoms to describe a structure and limitations. The skilled in the art would readily recognize the proper application of these specifications when taken as a whole, and in light of common knowledge and the state of the art. Various modes of the invention will become apparent in light of these specifications, and all such variations in which these terms are used should be considered within the scope of the invention.

(118) It will be appreciated that the invention is not limited to what has been described hereinabove merely by way of example. While there have been described what are at present considered to be the preferred embodiments of this invention, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that various other embodiments, changes, and modifications may be made therein without departing from the spirit or scope of this invention and that it is, therefore, aimed to cover all such changes and modifications as fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention, for which letters patent is applied.