TREATMENT OF OXIDATIVE STRESS DISORDERS INCLUDING CONTRAST NEPHROPATHY, RADIATION DAMAGE AND DISRUPTIONS IN THE FUNCTION OF RED CELLS

Abstract

Methods of treating or suppressing oxidative stress diseases and symptoms related to oxidative stress affecting normal electron flow in the cells or caused by reactive oxygen species with redox-active therapeutics. Use of redox-active therapeutics for the reduction, suppression or treatment of oxidative stress induced by chemical agents such as contrast agents and other nephrotoxic agents, by radiation exposure, and by disruptions in the transport of oxygen to tissues, is disclosed.

Claims

1. A method for treating an oxidative stress disorder in a mammal having an oxidative stress disorder, said method comprising administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a redox-active therapeutic, wherein the redox-active therapeutic is selected from the group consisting of: compounds of Formula II: ##STR00008## and the hydroquinone forms thereof; wherein, R.sup.21, R.sup.22, and R.sup.23 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-haloalkyl, CN, F, Cl, Br, and I; R.sup.24 is independently selected from the group consisting of (C.sub.1-C.sub.20)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.20)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.20)-alkynyl, and (C.sub.4-C.sub.20) containing at least one double bond and at least one triple bond; or a stereoisomer, or a mixture of stereoisomers thereof; and wherein the oxidative stress disorder is a hemoglobinopathy.

2-19. (canceled)

20. The method according to claim 1, wherein the redox-active therapeutic is a compound of Formula II or a stereoisomer, or a mixture of stereoisomers thereof.

21-24. (canceled)

25. The method according to claim 1, wherein the redox-active therapeutic is the hydroquinone form of a compound of Formula II or a stereoisomer, or a mixture of stereoisomers thereof.

26. The method according to claim 1, wherein R.sup.21, R.sup.22, and R.sup.23 are independently selected from the group consisting of (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl.

27. The method according to claim 1, wherein R.sup.24 is selected from the group consisting of (C.sub.1-C.sub.20)-alkyl.

28. The method according to claim 20, wherein R.sup.21, R.sup.22, and R.sup.23 are independently selected from the group consisting of (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl.

29. The method according to claim 20, wherein R.sup.24 is selected from the group consisting of (C.sub.1-C.sub.20)-alkyl.

30. The method according to claim 1, wherein the redox-active therapeutic is selected from the group consisting of: 2-octyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone, 2-hexyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone, and the hydroquinone forms thereof.

31. The method according to claim 1, wherein the hemoglobinopathy is sickle-cell disease.

32. The method according to claim 29, wherein the hemoglobinopathy is sickle-cell disease.

33. The method according to claim 30, wherein the hemoglobinopathy is sickle-cell disease.

34. The method according to claim 1, wherein the hemoglobinopathy is a thalassemia.

35. The method according to claim 34, wherein the thalassemia is alpha-thalassemia.

36. The method according to claim 34, wherein the thalassemia is beta-thalassemia.

37. The method according to claim 34, wherein the thalassemia is beta-thalassemia major.

38. The method according to claim 1, wherein the redox-active therapeutic is administered in a pharmaceutical composition comprising the redox-active therapeutic and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, or pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.

Description

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

[0043] The invention embraces compounds useful in treating or suppressing diseases and symptoms related to oxidative stress affecting normal electron flow in the cells or caused by reactive oxygen species. The redox-active therapeutics for treatment or suppression of oxidative diseases and associated aspects of the invention are described in more detail herein.

[0044] By “subject,” “individual,” or “patient” is meant an individual organism, preferably a vertebrate, more preferably a mammal, most preferably a human.

[0045] Contrast nephropathy can be defined in general as an acute decline in renal function following the administration of intravenous contrast medium. Clinically it is defined as a rise in serum creatine of 0.5 mg/dl, or a rise of 25% or more in the patient's creatine level. The rise in serum creatine usually arises from 24 to 48 hours after the contrast study, generally peaks at 3 to 5 days, and returns to baseline value by 7 to 10 days.

[0046] Several mechanisms have been suggested for contrast medium-induced nephropathy. After radiographic contrast medium exposure, a brief period of vasodilation may be followed by renal vasoconstriction leading to intense reduction in renal blood flow, direct toxicity to renal tubular epithelium, tubular obstruction by protein precipitates, complement activation, and renal ischemia. In addition, patients at high risk of developing renal failure, including those with endothelial dysfunction, may not be able to dilate the renal vasculature, and thus experience a prolonged vasoconstrictive response. Vasoconstriction not only causes a decrease in renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate, but it may also exacerbate medullary ischemia by decreasing oxygen supply since renal oxygen consumption is coupled to renal blood flow.

[0047] By “contrast media” is meant any conventional contrast media that may be used at the discretion of the attending physician. Contrast media may include, but are not limited to, iodinated contrast agents, high osmolality contrast agents, low osmolality contrast agents, and biodegradable contrast agents. Contrast media agents may also include contrast agents containing elements with other high atomic weights, such as bromine, gadolinium, and barium

[0048] Intravascular contrast agents typically comprise iodinated benzene ring derivatives that are formulated as sodium or meglumine salts. The multiple iodine molecules contained within the contrast agent are responsible for the X-ray attenuation. The amount of radiopacity that is generated by a particular contrast agent is a function of the percentage of iodine in the molecule and the concentration of the contrast media administered. The iodine content in different radiographic contrast media can vary from 11% to 48%. Iodinated contrast agents are classified as ionic or high osmolar contrast media (HOCM) or nonionic or low osmolar contrast media (LOCM).

[0049] Ionic contrast media dissociate into separate ions, when placed in water solutions, and it is this dissociation that is responsible for increased osmolality in the blood in comparison to nonionic contrast media. Human blood has an osmolality of approximately 300 milliosmoles (mOsm) per kilogram (kg) or 30 mOsm per deciliter (or 30%), while a typical ionic contrast agent can have an osmolality on the order of 1300 mOsm/kg to 1600 mOsm/kg or 130 mOsm per deciliter, making it a hypertonic solution with respect to blood. Some ionic contrast agents include but are not limited to diatriozate, metrizoate and ioxaglate.

[0050] The nonionic contrast media do not dissociate into ions, thus resulting in lower osmolality contrast agents. Typical nonionic contrast agents have an osmolality on the order of 500 mOsm/kg to 850 mOsm/kg or 50 mOsm per deciliter to 85 mOsm per deciliter. Although their osmolality is lower than ionic contrast media, they are still considered hypertonic with respect to blood. Some non-ionic contrast agents include but are not limited to iopamidol, ioversol, iohexol, ioxilan, iopromide, and iodixanol.

[0051] By “radiation,” as used herein, is meant radiation, including ionizing radiation, capable of causing cellular damage. Such forms of radiation include alpha rays, beta rays, x-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons. In one embodiment, ionizing radiation is radiation that has enough energy to eject electrons from electrically neutral atoms, leaving behind charged atoms or ions. In another embodiment, ionizing radiation is a dose of radiation above 155 electron volts that may have carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic health effects in humans. In another embodiment, alpha rays are alpha radiation or alpha particles (helium nuclei). In another embodiment, beta rays are beta particles (electrons). In another embodiment, high frequency electromagnetic waves, x-rays, are generally identical to gamma rays except for their place of origin. In another embodiment, neutrons are not themselves ionizing but their collisions with nuclei lead to the ejection of other charged particles that do cause ionization. Other forms of radiation sufficiently energetic to cause damage to cells, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, are also included. Sources of radiation include radioactive isotopes, which may be naturally-occurring or man-made, and cosmic rays. Radiation can be emitted due to the gradual decay of radioactive isotopes, or due to nuclear fission or fusion events (as in an atomic bomb or nuclear reactor). In certain embodiments, the radiation is x-ray radiation or gamma radiation. In other embodiments, the radiation is beta radiation. In other embodiments, the radiation is alpha radiation. In certain embodiments, the radiation is due to radiation therapy. In certain embodiments, the radiation is radiation due to radioactive fallout or contamination.

[0052] The term “radiation damage,” as used herein, refers to damage to a nucleic acid molecule in a cell, which damage is caused by exposure of the cell to radiation. For example, radiation exposure can result in double-strand breaks of nucleic acids. As another example, radiation exposure can result in single-strand nicks, breaks, or gaps in nucleic acids, as well as damage to, or loss of, nucleic acid bases. As another example, radiation exposure can result in nucleic acid translocations or various other chromosomal abnormalities. Radiation damage to nucleic acids may be direct or indirect, e.g., radiation may create free radicals, which in turn induce nucleic acid damage. As used herein, the term “preventing radiation damage” means eliminating, ameliorating or decreasing one or more indicia of radiation damage in a treated cell, compared to an untreated cell. As used herein, the term “protecting a cell or subject against radiation damage” means eliminating or decreasing one or more indicia of radiation damage in a treated cell compared to an untreated cell. In one aspect, preventing (or treating) radiation damage in a cell involves decreasing damage to one or more nucleic acid molecules in cells treated according to this invention by at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 80%, 90%, or 95%, compared to untreated cells. In one aspect, preventing (or treating) radiation damage means enhancing DNA repair in a normal cell.

[0053] By non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, (NSAIDs), are meant drugs with analgesic, antipyretic and, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects, reducing pain, fever and inflammation. The term “non-steroidal” is used to distinguish these drugs from steroids, which have a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. As analgesics, NSAIDs are unusual in that they are non-narcotic. The most prominent members of this group of drugs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen partly because they are available over-the-counter in many areas.

[0054] By “ACE inhibitors,” or inhibitors of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme, is meant a group of pharmaceuticals that are used primarily in treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure. Some examples of ACE inhibitors are captopril, zofenopril, enalapril, ramipril, quinapril, perindopril, lisinopril, benazepril and fosinopril. Adverse drug reactions (=1% of patients) include renal impairment.

[0055] “Treating” a disease with the compounds and methods discussed herein is defined as administering one or more of the compounds discussed herein, with or without additional therapeutic agents, in order to reduce or eliminate either the disease or one or more symptoms of the disease, or to retard the progression of the disease or of one or more symptoms of the disease, or to reduce the severity of the disease or of one or more symptoms of the disease. “Suppression” of a disease with the compounds and methods discussed herein is defined as administering one or more of the compounds discussed herein, with or without additional therapeutic agents, in order to suppress the clinical manifestation of the disease, or to suppress the manifestation of adverse symptoms of the disease. The distinction between treatment and suppression is that treatment occurs after adverse symptoms of the disease are manifest in a subject, while suppression occurs before adverse symptoms of the disease are manifest in a subject. Suppression may be partial, substantially total, or total. The compounds and methods of the invention can then be administered to asymptomatic patients at risk of developing the clinical symptoms of the disease, in order to suppress the appearance of any adverse symptoms, for example the compounds of the invention can be administered to patients undergoing radiotherapy at risk of radiation damage or injury. “Therapeutic use” of the compounds discussed herein is defined as using one or more of the compounds discussed herein to treat or suppress a disease, as defined above. A “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound is an amount of the compound, which, when administered to a subject, is sufficient to reduce or eliminate either a disease or one or more symptoms of a disease, or to retard the progression of a disease or of one or more symptoms of a disease, or to reduce the severity of a disease or of one or more symptoms of a disease, or to suppress the clinical manifestation of a disease, or to suppress the manifestation of adverse symptoms of a disease. A therapeutically effective amount can be given in one or more administrations.

[0056] As used herein, “redox-active therapeutics” embraces therapeutics comprising a moiety having the property of giving up electrons to a suitable oxidizing agent or taking up electrons from a suitable reducing agent. For the purposes of the present invention, the preferred moieties comprise a quinone core structure. Examples of redox-active therapeutics are CoQ10, Idebenone, Ubiquinone, Mitoquinone (Mito-Q) and their derivatives. Further examples of redox-active therapeutics are provided in co-assigned US Pat. Publications Nos. 2009/0118257, 2006/0281809, 2007/0072943, 2007/0225261, and International Pat. Publication No. WO 2009/089224, incorporated herein by reference. Other examples of therapeutics having chemical structures comprising a quinone moiety included in but not limiting the invention are AA-861 (Takeda); E-6700 and E-3300 (Eisai); Seratrodast™ (Abbott); CV-6504 (Takeda); BN-8265 and IRC-083864 (SCRAS); and HU-331(Hebrew University). For the purpose of the present invention the quinone moiety in the chemical structure of the redox-active therapeutic may be isolated or embedded in a larger structure such as but not limited to a naphthoquinone, anthraquinone or a larger molecule such as Mitomycin. For the purpose of the present invention the quinone moiety in the chemical structure of the redox-active therapeutic may occur as its oxidized (cyclohexadienedione) quinone form or its reduced (benzenediol) hydroquinone form. For the purpose of the present invention the term includes pro-drugs of the redox-active compounds as defined herein. For the purpose of the invention, the term includes derivatives of the redox-active compounds defined herein, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a hydrogen isotope, for example by deuterium. For the purpose of the present invention, the term excludes β-Lapachone.

Examples of Redox-Active Therapeutic Compounds.

[0057] Some redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula I:

##STR00001##

wherein,
the bonds indicated with a dashed line can be all single or all double,
R.sup.1, R.sup.2, and R.sup.3 are independently selected from H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-haloalkyl, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, and —I; and
R.sup.4 and R.sup.5 are independently selected from hydroxy and (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, and R.sup.6 is hydrogen; or
R.sup.4 is (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, and R.sup.5 and R.sup.6 are hydrogen; or
R.sup.4 is (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, and R.sup.5 and R.sup.6 together form the second bond of a double bond between the carbon atoms to which they are attached;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0058] Some other redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula II:

##STR00002##

wherein,
R.sup.21, R.sup.22, and R.sup.23 are independently selected from H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-haloalkyl, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, and —I;
R.sup.24 is independently selected from (C.sub.1-C.sub.20)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.20)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.20)-alkynyl, and a (C.sub.1-C.sub.20) group containing at least one double bond and at least one triple bond;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0059] Some other redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula III:

##STR00003##

wherein,
the bond indicated with a dashed line can be single or double;
R.sup.31, R.sup.32, and R.sup.33 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-haloalkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-haloalkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-alkynyl, —(C.sub.2-C.sub.5)— haloalkynyl, —OR.sup.35, —SR.sup.35, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —N.sub.3, and NR.sup.35R.sup.36; where R.sup.35 and R.sup.36 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C.sub.3-C.sub.5)-cycloalkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl, and —(C═O—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl-(C.sub.6-C.sub.10)-aryl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl, or where R.sup.35 and R.sup.36 selected from these groups are combined to form a ring;
R.sup.34 represents a linear or branched group containing 1 to 32 carbon atoms and any number of single, double, or triple bonds in any chemically possible combination;
X is selected from the group consisting of H, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —N.sub.3, —NR.sup.37R.sup.38, and —OR.sup.39;
where R.sup.37 and R.sup.38 are independently selected from H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, or [0060] where one of R.sup.37 and R.sup.38 are independently selected from the group consisting of —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl; —(C═O)—NH.sub.2; —(C═O)—NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl; —(C═O)—NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl; —(C═O)—NR.sup.301R.sup.302, where R.sup.301 and R.sup.302 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.301 and R.sup.302 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached; —(C═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-haloalkyl, —S(O).sub.2—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —S(O).sub.2-aryl, and —S(O).sub.2-aralkyl, [0061] and where the other of R.sup.37 or R.sup.38 is H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl or where R.sup.37 and R.sup.38 selected from these groups together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.37 and R.sup.38 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached;
where R.sup.39 is independently selected from H, —(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NH.sub.2, —(C═O)—NH—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NR.sup.301R.sup.302 where R.sup.301 and R.sup.302 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.301 and R.sup.302 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, —(C═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —S(O).sub.2—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —S(O).sub.2-aryl, and —S(O).sub.2-aralkyl;
with the proviso that when both of R.sup.31 and R.sup.32 are —OCH.sub.3 and R.sup.33 is —CH.sub.3, then X is not —H or —OH;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0062] Some other redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula IV:

##STR00004##

wherein,
n is an integer from 0 to 9 inclusive;
the bond indicated with dashed lines can be single or double, and in each unit the dashed bond can single or double independently of other units;
R.sup.41, R.sup.42, and R.sup.43 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-haloalkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-haloalkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-alkynyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.5)-haloalkynyl, —OR.sup.45, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —N.sub.3, and —NR.sup.45R.sup.46; where R.sup.45 and R.sup.46 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C.sub.3-C.sub.6)-cycloalkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.5)-haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl, and —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl-(C.sub.6-C.sub.10)aryl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.4)alkyl, or where R.sup.45 and R.sup.46 selected from these groups are combined to form a ring;
R.sup.44 is selected from the group consisting of H, —OR.sup.45, —SR.sup.45, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, and —NR.sup.45R.sup.46;
X is selected from the group consisting of H, —NR.sup.47R.sup.48, —OR.sup.49 and —(CH.sub.2).sub.2C(CH.sub.3).sub.2OH;
R.sup.47 and R.sup.48 are independently selected from H, —(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)haloalkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl, or where either one of R.sup.47 and R.sup.48 are independently selected from the group consisting of —(C═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NH.sub.2, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)alkyl, —(C═O)—NH(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NR.sup.401R.sup.402 where R.sup.401 and R.sup.402 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.401 and R.sup.402 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached; —(C═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)alkyl, —(C═O)—O(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —S(O).sub.2—(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —S(O).sub.2-aryl, and —S(O).sub.2-aralkyl, and where the other of R.sup.47 or R.sup.48 is H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl or where R.sup.47 and R.sup.48 selected from these groups are combined to form a ring, or where R.sup.47 and R.sup.48 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.47 and R.sup.48 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached; where R.sup.49 is independently selected from H, (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl or (C.sub.1-C.sub.8-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NH.sub.2, —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —(C═O)—NR.sup.401R.sup.402 where R.sup.401 and R.sup.402 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached combine to form a 3- to 8-membered ring, and where another group selected from —NH—, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl)-, —O—, or —S— can be optionally incorporated in the ring formed by R.sup.401 and R.sup.402 and the nitrogen atom to which they are attached; —(C═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —(C═O)—O(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl, —S(O).sub.2(C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl, —S(O).sub.2-aryl, and —S(O).sub.2-aralkyl; with the provisos that when n=3 and if R.sup.44 is —H or —OH, then X is not —H, and that when R.sup.41 and R.sup.42 are —OCH.sub.3 and R.sup.43 is —CH.sub.3, then either R.sup.44 is neither H nor —OH, or X is neither H nor —OH nor —(CH2).sub.2C(CH.sub.3).sub.2OH;
and stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0063] Some other redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula V and Formula Va:

##STR00005##

wherein, [0064] R.sup.51, R.sup.52, and R.sup.53 are independently selected from hydrogen and (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl; [0065] R.sup.54 is (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl; [0066] R.sup.55 and R.sup.56 are independently selected from hydrogen, hydroxy, alkoxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.40)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.40)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.40)-alkynyl, and aryl; where the alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl or aryl groups may optionally be substituted with [0067] —OR.sup.501, —S(O).sub.0-2R.sup.501, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —NR.sup.501R.sup.502, oxo (on an atom with two available valences), (C.sub.3-C.sub.6)-cycloalkyl, aryl, aryl-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, —C(═O)—R.sup.503, —C(═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-aryl, —C(═O)—O—R.sup.503, —C(═O)—O—(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-aryl, —C(═O)—N—R.sup.503R.sup.504, —C(═O)—N—(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-aryl, —N—C(═O)—R.sup.503, —N—C(═O)—(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-aryl; where the aryl, heteroaryl and heterocyclyl ring substituents may be further substituted with (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl, oxo (on an atom with two available valences), hydroxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy, —C(═O)— (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl and —C(═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl; and where one of the carbons of the alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl groups may be substituted with a heteroatom selected from O, N or S; or [0068] R.sup.55 and R.sup.56 together with the atom to which they are attached form a saturated or unsaturated 3-8 membered ring, optionally incorporating one or more additional, such as one, two, or three, N, O, or S atoms, optionally substituted with oxo (on an atom with two available valences), —OR.sup.501, —SR.sup.501, —CN, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —NR.sup.501R.sup.502, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl; hydroxy-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, —C(═O)—H, —C(═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, —C(═O)-aryl, —C(═O)—OH, or —C(═O)—O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl; or [0069] R.sup.55 and R.sup.56 together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached form an N,N′-disubstituted piperazine where the nitrogen substitution at the 4-position is a group identical to the substitution at the 1-position forming a compound of formula Va, where R.sup.51, R.sup.52, R.sup.53, and R.sup.54 are as defined above:

##STR00006## [0070] R.sup.501 and R.sup.502 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl, aryl, aryl-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, —C(═O)—H, —C(═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, —C(═O)-aryl and —C(═O)—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl-aryl; and [0071] R.sup.503 and R.sup.504 are selected from hydrogen and (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0072] Some other redox-active therapeutic compounds used in the methods of treatment of the present invention are selected from compounds of Formula VI:

##STR00007##

wherein, [0073] R.sup.61 is aryl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl- or heterocyclyl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-, wherein the aryl or heterocyclyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkynyl, halogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl, hydroxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy, —CN, nitro, —C(═O)OR.sup.64, —NR.sup.65R.sup.66, —C(═O)NR.sup.65R.sup.66, —SH, —S—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6) alkyl, and —C(═O)R.sup.64; and wherein the (C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl group is optionally substituted with OH, —O—(C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, —NH.sub.2, —NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl).sub.2, oxo (on an atom with two available valences) or halogen; and [0074] R.sup.62 and R.sup.63 are independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl and (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy; or [0075] R.sup.63 is aryl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl- or heterocyclyl-(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl-, wherein the aryl or heterocyclyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkynyl, halogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl-, hydroxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy, —CN, nitro, —C(═O)OR.sup.64, —NR.sup.65R.sup.66, —C(═O)NR.sup.65R.sup.66, —SH, —S—(C.sub.1-C.sub.6) alkyl, and —C(═O)R.sup.64; and wherein the (C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl group is optionally substituted with OH, —O(C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, —NH.sub.2, —NH(C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl, —N((C.sub.1-C.sub.4)-alkyl).sub.2, oxo (on an atom with two available valences) or halogen; and [0076] R.sup.61 and R.sup.62 are independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, and (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy; [0077] R.sup.64 is hydrogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, aryl, or aryl-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl-; [0078] R.sup.65 and R.sup.66 are independently of each other hydroxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkenyl, (C.sub.2-C.sub.6)-alkynyl, aryl, aryl-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl-, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclyl-(C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkyl-; wherein the alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl and heterocyclyl groups can be further substituted with oxo (on an atom with two available valences), halogen, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-haloalkyl, hydroxy, (C.sub.1-C.sub.6)-alkoxy, or —C(═O)OR.sup.64;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0079] Some examples of redox-active therapeutics described in co-assigned US publications 2006/0281809, 2007/0072943, and 2007/0225261 are: [0080] alpha-tocopherol quinone (alternatively named as 2-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione); [0081] 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecyl)-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0082] beta-tocopherol quinone; [0083] gamma-tocopherol quinone; [0084] alpha-tocotrienol quinone (alternatively named as 2-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-6,10,14-hexadecatrienyl)-3,5,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-di one or 2-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-6,10,14-hexadecatrienyl)-3,5,6-trimethyl-p-benzoquinone, CAS Registry number 14101-66-7); [0085] beta-tocotrienol quinone; [0086] gamma-tocotrienol quinone; [0087] 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl)-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione; [0088] 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2,6,10,14-hexadecatetraenyl)-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione; [0089] 2-butyl-3-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0090] 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadeca-2,6,10,14-tetraenyl)-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0091] 2-butyl-3-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecyl)-5,6-dimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0092] 2-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-propyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0093] 3-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecyl)-5-methyl-2-propyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0094] 2-(3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecyl)-3-isobutyl-5,6-dimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0095] 3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl]-3,5,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione; [0096] 2-hexyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0097] 2-octyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0098] 2-heptadeca-8,11-dienyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0099] 2-heptadec-8-enyl-3,5,6-trimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0100] 2-tert-butyl-3-hexyl-5,6-dimethyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0101] 2-heptadeca-8,11-dienyl-3,5-diisopropyl-6-methyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0102] 2-heptyl-3,5-diisopropyl-6-methyl-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0103] 2,3-dimethyl-5,6-bis-(3-methyl-butyl)-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0104] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-butyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(3-methyl-but-2-enyl)-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0105] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-butyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(3-methyl-butyl)-[1,4]benzoquinone; [0106] 2-(7-chloro-3-methylhept-2-enyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0107] 2-(6-chloro-3-methylhex-2-enyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0108] 2-(6-iodo-3-methylhex-2-enyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0109] 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(3-methylnon-2-enyl)-1,4-benzoquinone; [0110] 5-methyl-7-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)hept-5-enenitrile; [0111] N-(5-methyl-7-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)hept-5-enyl)acetamide; [0112] 5-methyl-7-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)hept-5-enal; [0113] 2-(7-hydroxy-3-methylhept-2-enyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione [0114] 2-tert-butyl-5,6-dimethyl-3-(3-methylnon-2-enyl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione [0115] 2-(3,16-dihydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadeca-6,10,14-trienyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0116] 2-(16-amino-3-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadeca-6,10,14-trienyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0117] 2-(15-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0118] 2-(3-chloro-15-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione [0119] 2-(3-chloro-15-hydroxy-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadeca-6,10-dienyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione [0120] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3-isopentyl-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0121] 2,3-diisopentyl-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione [0122] 7-5-methyl-7-(2,4,7-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)hept-5-enyl acetate; and [0123] 2-(7-hydroxy-3-methylhept-2-enyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0124] Some examples of redox-active therapeutics described in co-assigned US provisional applications US Pat. Publications Nos. 2009/0118257 and International Pat. Publication No. WO/2009/089224 are: [0125] 6,6′-(4,4′-(piperazine-1,4-diyl)bis(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutane-4,1-diyl))bis(2,3,5-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione); [0126] 2-hydroxy-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0127] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxo-4-(piperidin-1-yl)butyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0128] N-hexyl-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0129] N-benzyl-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0130] N-(cyclopropylmethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0131] 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-phenethyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0132] 2-hydroxy-N— (3-hydroxypropyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0133] N-cyclopropyl-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0134] 2-(3-hydroxy-4-(4-hydroxypiperidin-1-yl)-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0135] 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0136] 2-hydroxy-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0137] 2-hydroxy-N-(5-hydroxypentyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0138] 2-hydroxy-N-(1-hydroxypropan-2-yl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0139] methyl 2-(2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamido)acetate; [0140] N-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0141] 2-hydroxy-N-(2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0142] 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0143] 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-(3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl)-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0144] 2-hydroxy-N-(6-hydroxyhexyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0145] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0146] 2-(4-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0147] 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-(3-morpholinopropyl)-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0148] 2-hydroxy-N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0149] N-(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0150] 2-hydroxy-N-(4-hydroxyphenethyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0151] N-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0152] 2-(4-(4-acetylpiperazin-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0153] 2-(4-(azepan-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0154] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxo-4-(piperazin-1-yl)butyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0155] 2-(4-(4-fluoropiperidin-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0156] 2-(4-(4,4-difluoropiperidin-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0157] 2-(4-(4-benzoylpiperazin-1-yl)-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-4-oxobutyl)-3,5,6-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0158] 1 tert-butyl 4-(2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanoyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate; [0159] N-(2-fluorophenethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0160] N-(3-fluorophenethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0161] N-(4-fluorophenethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide N-(2-chlorophenethyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0162] 2-hydroxy-N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0163] N-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0164] N-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0165] N-(2-fluorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0166] N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0167] N-(4-fluorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0168] N-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0169] N-(3-chlorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0170] N-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-(2,4,5-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclohexa-1,4-dienyl)butanamide; [0171] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-phenethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0172] 2-benzyl-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0173] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(3-phenylpropyl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0174] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0175] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(naphthalen-2-yl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0176] 2-(benzofuran-2-yl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0177] 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0178] 2-(4-ethylphenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0179] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethyl-3-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0180] 2-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-di one; [0181] 2-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0182] 2-(3-fluorophenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0183] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,5-dimethyl-6-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0184] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0185] 2-(3,4-difluorophenyl)-6-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,5-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0186] 2-(4-fluorophenyl)-6-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,5-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0187] 2-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0188] 2-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione; [0189] 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-6-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,5-dimethylcyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione;
and all stereoisomers, mixtures of stereoisomers, prodrugs, metabolites, salts, phosphate substituted forms, crystalline forms, non-crystalline forms, deuterated forms, hydrates and solvates thereof.

[0190] For all the formulations and methods described herein, any composition in the quinone form can also be used in its reduced form (hydroquinone) when desired. That is, the compounds recited herein as cyclohexadienedione compounds (oxidized quinone) form can also be used in their benzenediol (reduced hydroquinone) form as desired.

[0191] While the compounds described herein can occur and can be used as the neutral (non-salt) compound, the description is intended to embrace all salts of the compounds described herein, as well as methods of using such salts of the compounds. In one embodiment, the salts of the compounds comprise pharmaceutically acceptable salts. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are those salts which can be administered as drugs or pharmaceuticals to humans and/or animals and which, upon administration, retain at least some of the biological activity of the free compound (neutral compound or non-salt compound). The desired salt of a basic compound may be prepared by methods known to those of skill in the art by treating the compound with an acid. Examples of inorganic acids include, but are not limited to, hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and phosphoric acid. Examples of organic acids include, but are not limited to, formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, sulfonic acids, and salicylic acid. Salts of basic compounds with amino acids, such as aspartate salts and glutamate salts, can also be prepared. The desired salt of an acidic compound can be prepared by methods known to those of skill in the art by treating the compound with a base. Examples of inorganic salts of acid compounds include, but are not limited to, alkali metal and alkaline earth salts, such as sodium salts, potassium salts, magnesium salts, and calcium salts; ammonium salts; and aluminum salts. Examples of organic salts of acid compounds include, but are not limited to, procaine, dibenzylamine, N-ethylpiperidine, N,N-dibenzylethylenediamine, and triethylamine salts. Salts of acidic compounds with amino acids, such as lysine salts, can also be prepared.

[0192] The invention also includes all stereoisomers of the compounds, including diastereomers and enantiomers. The invention also includes mixtures of stereoisomers in any ratio, including, but not limited to, racemic mixtures. Unless stereochemistry is explicitly indicated in a structure, the structure is intended to embrace all possible stereoisomers of the compound depicted. If stereochemistry is explicitly indicated for one portion or portions of a molecule, but not for another portion or portions of a molecule, the structure is intended to embrace all possible stereoisomers for the portion or portions where stereochemistry is not explicitly indicated.

[0193] The compounds can be administered in prodrug form. Prodrugs are derivatives of the compounds, which are themselves relatively inactive but which convert into the active compound when introduced into the subject in which they are used by a chemical or biological process in vivo, such as an enzymatic conversion. Suitable prodrug formulations include, but are not limited to, peptide conjugates of the compounds of the invention and esters of compounds of the inventions. Further discussion of suitable prodrugs is provided in H. Bundgaard, Design of Prodrugs, New York: Elsevier, 1985; in R. Silverman, The Organic Chemistry of Drug Design and Drug Action, Boston: Elsevier, 2004; in R. L. Juliano (ed.), Biological Approaches to the Controlled Delivery of Drugs (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 507), New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1987; and in E. B. Roche (ed.), Design of Biopharmaceutical Properties Through Prodrugs and Analogs (Symposium sponsored by Medicinal Chemistry Section, APhA Academy of Pharmaceutical Sciences, November 1976 national meeting, Orlando, Fla.), Washington: The Academy, 1977.

[0194] Metabolites of the compounds are also embraced by the invention.

[0195] “C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl” is intended to embrace a saturated linear, branched, cyclic, or a combination thereof, hydrocarbon of 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of “C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl” are methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopropyl-methyl, methyl-cyclopropyl, pentyl (where the point of attachment of the pentyl group to the remainder of the molecule can be at any location on the pentyl fragment), cyclopentyl, hexyl (where the point of attachment of the hexyl group to the remainder of the molecule can be at any location on the hexyl fragment), and cyclohexyl.

[0196] The terms “(C.sub.0-C.sub.4)-alkyl” “(C.sub.0-C.sub.6)-alkyl” “(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl” are intended to embrace a saturated linear, branched, cyclic, or a combination of linear and/or branched and/or cyclic hydrocarbon chain and/or ring of 1 to 4, 1 to 6, or 1 to 8 carbon atoms, respectively, or, for the option of C.sub.0, where the alkyl group is absent. If the absence of the alkyl group results in an open valence, as in —C(═O)—C.sub.0 alkyl, then C.sub.0 alkyl represents a hydrogen atom. This term can represent either a monovalent or a divalent hydrocarbon chain, for example, (C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-alkyl can embrace (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkyl and (C.sub.1-C.sub.8)-alkylene chains. Terms such as “(C.sub.0-C.sub.8)-haloalkyl” are interpreted in a similar manner, that is, as C.sub.1-C.sub.8 haloalkyl or as an absent group, where if the absent group results in an open valence, as in —C(═O)—C.sub.0 haloalkyl, then C.sub.0 alkyl represents a hydrogen atom.

[0197] “C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkylene” is intended to embrace a divalent saturated linear, or branched, hydrocarbon chain of 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of “C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkylene” are, but are not limited to, —CH.sub.2—, —(CH.sub.2).sub.2—, —CH(CH.sub.3)—, —C(CH.sub.3).sub.2—, —(CH.sub.2).sub.3—, —CH.sub.2—CH(CH.sub.3)—CH.sub.2—, —CH.sub.2—C(CH.sub.3).sub.2—CH.sub.2—, —CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2—CH(CH.sub.3)—, —CH.sub.2—CH.sub.2—C(CH.sub.3).sub.2—, —(CH.sub.2).sub.4—, —(CH.sub.2).sub.5—, —(CH.sub.2).sub.6—.

[0198] “Halogen” or “halo” designates fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo.

[0199] “C.sub.1-C.sub.6 haloalkyl” is intended to embrace any C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl substituent having at least one halogen substituent; the halogen can be attached via any valence on the C.sub.1-C.sub.6 alkyl group. Some examples of C.sub.1-C.sub.6 haloalkyl is —CF.sub.3, —CCl.sub.3, —CHF.sub.2, —CHCl.sub.2, —CHBr.sub.2, —CH.sub.2F, —CH.sub.2Cl.

[0200] The term “aryl” is intended to embrace an aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group of from 6 to 20 carbon atoms having a single ring (e.g., phenyl) or multiple condensed (fused) rings (e.g., naphthyl or anthryl). A preferred aryl group is C.sub.6-C.sub.10 aryl.

[0201] The terms “heterocycle”, “heterocyclic”, “heterocyclo”, and “heterocyclyl” are intended to encompass a monovalent, saturated, or partially unsaturated, carbocyclic radical having one or more rings incorporating one, two, three or four heteroatoms within the ring (chosen from nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur). Preferably the heterocyclic ring has between 2 and 6 carbon atoms. Examples of heterocycles include morpholine, piperidine, piperazine, thiazolidine, pyrazolidine, pyrazoline, imidazolidine, pyrrolidine, tetrahydropyran, tetrahydrofuran, quinuclidine, and the like.

[0202] The terms “heteroaryl”, is intended to encompass a monovalent aromatic, carbocyclic radical having one or more rings incorporating one, two, three or four heteroatoms within the ring (chosen from nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur). Preferably the heteroaryl ring has between 2 and 6 carbon atoms. Examples of heteroaryl include pyridine, pyrazine, imidazoline, thiazole, isothiazole, pyrazine, triazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, pyrazole, thiophene, pyrrole, pyran, furan, indole, quinoline, quinazoline, benzimidazole, benzothiophene, benzofuran, benzoxazole, benzothiazole, benzotriazole, imidazo-pyridines, pyrazolo-pyridines, pyrazolo-pyrazine, acridine, carbazole, and the like.

[0203] The substituent “oxo” is ═O, that is, an oxygen with a double bond to the atom to which it is attached. When oxo is listed as a potential substituent, it is intended to be a substituent only on atoms within groups where such substitution is chemically possible. For example, if a list of substituents for cyclohexyl and benzene groups recites “oxo” among the possibilities, the oxo group would only be available for substitution on the cycloalkyl group, and not on the benzene group, where such a substitution would exceed the valence of any carbon atom of the benzene group. Similarly, the oxo group would not be bonded to either of the two sp-hybridized carbons involved in an alkyne group.

Diseases Amenable to Treatment or Suppression with Compounds and Methods of the Invention

[0204] A variety of diseases are believed to be caused or aggravated by oxidative stress affecting normal electron flow in the cells or caused by reactive oxygen species. Diseases caused by energy impairment include, but are not limited to, i) diseases due to deprivation, poisoning or toxicity of oxygen, and qualitative or quantitative disruption in the transport of oxygen such as hemoglobinopathies, for example thalassemia or sickle cell anemia; ii) diseases induced by contrast agents which include nephropathy, such as contrast induced nephropathy (CIN); and iii) damage due to radiation exposure or injury.

Assessment and Efficacy of Therapy

[0205] The compounds of the invention can be used in biochemical tests or assays. Such tests can include incubation of one or more compounds of the invention with a tissue or cell sample from a subject to evaluate a subject's potential response (or the response of a specific subset of subjects) to administration of said one or more compounds, or to determine which compound of the invention produces the optimum effect in a specific subject or subset of subjects.

[0206] In vitro assessment of whether a redox-active compound of the invention is capable of treating a patient afflicted with sickle cell disease may also be achieved by subjecting a sample of blood cells from a patient afflicted with sickle cell to conditions such that the blood cells in the sample will sickle, and comparing the amount of sickling of the blood cells in the presence of the redox-active therapeutic with the amount of sickling of the cells in the absence of the redox-active therapeutic, wherein an absence of sickling or a reduction in the amount of sickling in the blood cells in the presence of the redox-active therapeutic compared with the amount of sickling of the blood cells in the absence of the redox-active therapeutic indicates that the redox-active therapeutic may be capable of treating a subject afflicted with sickle cell disease.

[0207] Additionally the efficacy of the redox-active therapeutic of the invention in treating a patient afflicted with sickle cell disease can also be determined by its ability to inhibit polymerization of hemoglobin. A suitable sample of hemoglobin from a subject afflicted with sickle cell disease can be subjected to conditions such that the hemoglobin polymerizes; and the amount of turbidity of the sample is compared in the presence of the redox-active therapeutic with the amount of turbidity of the sample in the absence of the redox-active therapeutic, wherein an absence or reduction in the amount of turbidity in the sample in the presence of the redox-active compound agent compared with the amount of turbidity in the sample in the absence of the redox-active therapeutic indicates that the redox active agent is capable of inhibiting polymerization of hemoglobin. One skilled in the art would know under what conditions hemoglobin polymerizes. One example is the condition wherein oxygen tension is reduced. One skilled in the art would know methods to use to compare the amount of sickling in samples. One example is a visual comparison. Such visual comparison may be done in several ways including but not limited to under a microscope and with the naked eye. One skilled in the art would know methods to use to compare the turbidity in samples. One example is the use of a spectrophotometer. As used herein, “turbidity” includes the opacity caused by suspended particles or cells in a solution wherein a higher turbidity indicates that the sample has more polymerization or aggregation than a sample with lower turbidity.

[0208] An assessment of whether a redox-active therapeutic of the invention is capable of treating a patient afflicted with radio contrast neuropathy can be achieved by measuring increase in serum creatine levels or decrease in renal blood flow.

[0209] An increase in serum creatine level as a measurable physiological parameter defines a contrast induced nephropathy condition, as understood by the skilled artisan. An increase in serum creatine levels of between about 25% to about 70%, or even higher, from reference values defines contrast induced nephropathy, such as an increase within the range of about 25% to about 50% in serum creatinine levels. Examples of reference values are between about 0.8 mg/dl and about 1.4 mg/dl in adult males, between about 0.6 mg/dl and about 1.1 mg/dl in adult females, and between about 0.2 mg/dl and about 1.0 mg/dl in children (see World-Wide-Web.rnceus.com/renal/renalcreat.html). In a further embodiment, an increase of about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65 and about 70%, and every range which lies in any ranges defined by two of the before mentioned values, where the lower limit of said range is defined by the lower value and the upper limit of said range by the higher value, e.g. a range of about 25% to about 30%, about 25% to about 35%, about 30% to about 60%, etc., can be indicative of contrast induced nephropathy.

[0210] A decrease in renal blood flow induced by contrast media is another measurable hemodynamic parameter which defines a disease condition as understood by the skilled artisan. Reference value for blood flow in the kidney is approximately 20% of the cardiac output per minute, and thus lies at about 1000 ml/min in a healthy human. A range of a decrease in renal blood flow, of between about a 20% decrease and about an 80% or even larger decrease in renal blood flow from reference values, defines contrast induced nephropathy. In a further embodiment, a decrease of about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85 and about 90%, and every value or value range which lies in any range defined by two of the before-mentioned values, where the lower limit of said range is defined by the lower value and the upper limit of said range by the higher value, e.g. a range of about 25% to about 30%, about 20% to about 35%, about 30% to about 60%, etc., can be indicative of contrast induced nephropathy. The renal blood flow can be measured using MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) techniques to determine renal blood flow and renal vascular resistance as well as by PAH (para-amino hippuric acid) infusion techniques.

[0211] The utility of the redox-active therapeutic compounds of the present invention may be demonstrated as radioprotective agents both in vitro and in vivo. For example, the ability of cultured cells to form clones (colonies) may be evaluated as a function of exposure to X-ray dose. Cells are either not treated or are treated with a redox-active therapeutic 30 minutes prior to exposure. The degree of retention of ability to form clones after exposure, in comparison to untreated cells, is directly related to the protective effect of the drug. A typical experiment of this type may be carried out essentially as described by Snyder and Lachmann Radiation Res. (1989) 120:121-128.

[0212] Alternatively, the utility of the redox-active therapeutic compound as radioprotective agent can be evaluated by measuring the production of DNA strand breaks upon exposure to X-ray dose. Cells are either not drug treated or are treated with a test agent about 30 minutes prior to exposure. The extent of DNA strand breakage after exposure, in comparison to that in untreated cells, is inversely related to the protective effect of the drug. A typical experiment of this type may be carried out essentially as described by Snyder Int. J. Radiat. Biol. (1989) 55:773.

[0213] In vivo, the radioprotective protective properties of the redox-active therapeutic compounds of the invention may be evaluated by the survivability of mice exposed to whole body irradiation. Animals, either pre-treated with a redox-active therapeutic or untreated, are exposed to whole body irradiation (1500 rads). Untreated control animals are expected to survive about 12-15 days. The degree of survivability of the treated animals, in comparison to the untreated controls, is directly related to the protective effect of the redox-active therapeutic treatment. A typical experiment of this type may be carried out essentially as described by Carroll et al. J. Med. Chem. (1990) 33:2501.

[0214] Additionally, the production of DNA strand breaks in lymphocytes taken from treated animals exposed to whole body irradiation may be evaluated in comparison to untreated control animals. Alternatively, the viability and clonogenicity of bone marrow cells taken from treated animals exposed to whole body irradiation may be evaluated in comparison to cells taken from untreated control animals as described by Pike and Robinson J. Cell Physiol. (1970) 76:77-84.

Pharmaceutical Formulations

[0215] The compounds described herein can be formulated as pharmaceutical compositions by formulation with additives such as pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, and pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, carriers and vehicles include processing agents and drug delivery modifiers and enhancers, such as, for example, calcium phosphate, magnesium stearate, talc, monosaccharides, disaccharides, starch, gelatin, cellulose, methyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, dextrose, hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, low melting waxes, ion exchange resins, and the like, as well as combinations of any two or more thereof. Other suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients are described in “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences,” Mack Pub. Co., New Jersey (1991), and “Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy,” Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 20th edition (2003) and 21st edition (2005), incorporated herein by reference.

[0216] A pharmaceutical composition can comprise a unit dose formulation, where the unit dose is a dose sufficient to have a therapeutic or suppressive effect.

[0217] Pharmaceutical compositions containing the compounds of the invention may be in any form suitable for the intended method of administration, including, for example, a solution, a suspension, or an emulsion. Liquid carriers are typically used in preparing solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Liquid carriers contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention include, for example, water, saline, pharmaceutically acceptable organic solvent(s), pharmaceutically acceptable oils or fats, and the like, as well as mixtures of two or more thereof. The liquid carrier may contain other suitable pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as solubilizers, emulsifiers, nutrients, buffers, preservatives, suspending agents, thickening agents, viscosity regulators, stabilizers, and the like. Suitable organic solvents include, for example, monohydric alcohols, such as ethanol, and polyhydric alcohols, such as glycols. Suitable oils include, for example, soybean oil, coconut oil, olive oil, safflower oil, cottonseed oil, and the like. For parenteral administration, the carrier can also be an oily ester such as ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, and the like. Compositions of the present invention may also be in the form of microparticles, microcapsules, liposomal encapsulates, and the like, as well as combinations of any two or more thereof.

[0218] Time-release or controlled release delivery systems may be used, such as a diffusion controlled matrix system or an erodible system, as described for example in: Lee, “Diffusion-Controlled Matrix Systems”, pp. 155-198 and Ron and Langer, “Erodible Systems”, pp. 199-224, in “Treatise on Controlled Drug Delivery”, A. Kydonieus Ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York 1992. The matrix may be, for example, a biodegradable material that can degrade spontaneously in situ and in vivo for, example, by hydrolysis or enzymatic cleavage, e.g., by proteases. The delivery system may be, for example, a naturally occurring or synthetic polymer or copolymer, for example in the form of a hydrogel. Exemplary polymers with cleavable linkages include polyesters, polyorthoesters, polyanhydrides, polysaccharides, poly(phosphoesters), polyamides, polyurethanes, poly(imidocarbonates) and poly(phosphazenes).

[0219] The compounds of the invention may be administered enterally, orally, parenterally, sublingually, by inhalation (e.g. as mists or sprays), rectally, or topically in dosage unit formulations containing conventional nontoxic pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants, and vehicles as desired. For example, suitable modes of administration include oral, subcutaneous, transdermal, transmucosal, iontophoretic, intravenous, intraarterial, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intranasal (e.g. via nasal mucosa), subdural, rectal, gastrointestinal, and the like, and directly to a specific or affected organ or tissue. For delivery to the central nervous system, spinal and epidural administration, or administration to cerebral ventricles, can be used. Topical administration may also involve the use of transdermal administration such as transdermal patches or iontophoresis devices. The term parenteral as used herein includes subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, and intrasternal injection or infusion techniques. The compounds are mixed with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants, and vehicles appropriate for the desired route of administration. Oral administration is a preferred route of administration, and formulations suitable for oral administration are preferred formulations. The compounds described for use herein can be administered in solid form, in liquid form, in aerosol form, or in the form of tablets, pills, powder mixtures, capsules, granules, injectables, creams, solutions, suppositories, enemas, colonic irrigations, emulsions, dispersions, food premixes, and in other suitable forms. The compounds can also be administered in liposome formulations. The compounds can also be administered as prodrugs, where the prodrug undergoes transformation in the treated subject to a form which is therapeutically effective. Additional methods of administration are known in the art.

[0220] Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspensions, may be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a nontoxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in propylene glycol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution, and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid find use in the preparation of injectables.

[0221] Solid dosage forms for oral administration may include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the active compound may be admixed with at least one inert diluent such as sucrose, lactose, or starch. Such dosage forms may also comprise additional substances other than inert diluents, e.g., lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate. In the case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage forms may also comprise buffering agents. Tablets and pills can additionally be prepared with enteric coatings.

[0222] Liquid dosage forms for oral administration may include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and elixirs containing inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water. Such compositions may also comprise adjuvants, such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, cyclodextrins, and sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents.

[0223] The compounds of the present invention can also be administered in the form of liposomes. As is known in the art, liposomes are generally derived from phospholipids or other lipid substances. Liposomes are formed by mono- or multilamellar hydrated liquid crystals that are dispersed in an aqueous medium. Any non-toxic, physiologically acceptable and metabolizable lipid capable of forming liposomes can be used. The present compositions in liposome form can contain, in addition to a compound of the present invention, stabilizers, preservatives, excipients, and the like. The preferred lipids are the phospholipids and phosphatidyl cholines (lecithins), both natural and synthetic. Methods to form liposomes are known in the art. See, for example, Prescott, Ed., Methods in Cell Biology, Volume XIV, Academic Press, New York, N.W., p. 33 et seq. (1976).

[0224] The compounds of the present invention can also be administered in a formulation comprising a first and second compound wherein the first compound is effective against an oxidative stress disorder and the second compound is one or more compounds of the present invention. The formulation of the present invention may comprise two or more redox-therapeutics as described herein.

[0225] The invention also provides articles of manufacture and kits containing materials useful for treating or suppressing oxidative stress diseases. The invention also provides kits comprising any one or more of the compounds of the invention.

[0226] In other aspects, the kits may be used for any of the methods described herein, including, for example, to treat an individual with an oxidative stress disorder, or to suppress an oxidative stress disorder in an individual.

[0227] The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier materials to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host to which the active ingredient is administered and the particular mode of administration. It will be understood, however, that the specific dose level for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, body area, body mass index (BMI), general health, sex, and diet of the patient; time of administration, route of administration, rate of excretion, or drug combination; and the type, progression, and severity of the particular disease undergoing therapy. The pharmaceutical unit dosage chosen is usually fabricated and administered to provide a defined final concentration of drug in the blood, tissues, organs, or other targeted region of the body. The therapeutically effective amount or effective amount for a given situation can be readily determined by routine experimentation and is within the skill and judgment of the ordinary clinician.

[0228] Examples of dosages which can be used are an effective amount within the dosage range of about 0.1 mg/kg to about 300 mg/kg body weight, or within about 1.0 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg body weight, or within about 1.0 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg body weight, or within about 1.0 mg/kg to about 30 mg/kg body weight, or within about 1.0 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg body weight, or within about 10 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg body weight, or within about 50 mg/kg to about 150 mg/kg body weight, or within about 100 mg/kg to about 200 mg/kg body weight, or within about 150 mg/kg to about 250 mg/kg body weight, or within about 200 mg/kg to about 300 mg/kg body weight, or within about 250 mg/kg to about 300 mg/kg body weight. Compounds of the present invention may be administered in a single daily dose, or the total daily dosage may be administered in divided dosage of two, three or four times daily.

[0229] While the compounds of the invention can be administered as the sole active pharmaceutical agent, they can also be used in combination with one or more other agents used in the treatment or suppression of disorders.

[0230] When additional active agents are used in combination with the compounds of the present invention, the additional active agents may generally be employed in therapeutic amounts as indicated in the Physicians' Desk Reference (PDR) 53rd Edition (1999), or such therapeutically useful amounts as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art.

[0231] The compounds of the invention and the other therapeutically active agents can be administered at the recommended maximum clinical dosage or at lower doses. Dosage levels of the active compounds in the compositions of the invention may be varied so as to obtain a desired therapeutic response depending on the route of administration, severity of the disease and the response of the patient. When administered in combination with other therapeutic agents, the therapeutic agents can be formulated as separate compositions that are given at the same time or different times, or the therapeutic agents can be given as a single composition.

Preparation of Compounds of the Invention

[0232] In general, the nomenclature used in this Application was generated with the help of naming package within the ChemOffice® version 11.0 suite of programs by CambridgeSoft Corp (Cambridge, Mass.).

[0233] The compounds of this invention can be prepared from readily available starting materials using general methods and procedures. It will be appreciated that where typical or preferred process conditions (i.e., reaction temperatures, times, mole ratios of reactants, solvents, pressures, etc.) are given, other process conditions can also be used unless otherwise stated. Optimum reaction conditions may vary with the particular reactants or solvent used, but such conditions can be determined by one skilled in the art by routine optimization procedures.

[0234] Preparation of the redox-active therapeutics of this invention is provided in co-assigned US Patent Application Publications No. 2006/0281809, 2007/0072943, 2007/0225261, 2009/0118257 and International Patent Publication No. WO 2009/089224.

[0235] Furthermore, the compounds of this invention will typically contain one or more chiral centers. Accordingly, if desired, such compounds can be prepared or isolated as pure stereoisomers, i.e., as individual enantiomers or diastereomers, or as stereoisomer-enriched mixtures. All such stereoisomers (and enriched mixtures) are included within the scope of this invention, unless otherwise indicated. Pure stereoisomers (or enriched mixtures) may be prepared using, for example, optically active starting materials or stereoselective reagents well-known in the art. Alternatively, racemic mixtures of such compounds can be separated using, for example, chiral column chromatography, chiral resolving agents and the like.

[0236] The disclosures of all publications, patents, patent applications and published patent applications referred to herein by an identifying citation are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0237] Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it is apparent to those skilled in the art that certain minor changes and modifications will be practiced. Therefore, the description and examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention.