LASER ASSEMBLY, SPECTROMETER AND METHOD FOR OPERATING A LASER

Abstract

A laser assembly (1) comprising: a semiconductor laser (2) with a fast gain medium, wherein the gain relaxation time of the gain medium is smaller than the round-trip time in the standing wave cavity, in particular a quantum cascade laser or an interband cascade laser, and a standing wave cavity (3); a DC source (9) coupled to the standing wave cavity (3) for pumping the laser (2); and an AC injection device (10) for injecting an electrical AC signal into the standing wave cavity (3) to stabilize an optical frequency comb, the AC injection device being suitable for producing an electrical AC signal within a range and/or within an integer multiple of the range, wherein the range is within ±1% of the natural round-trip frequency in the standing wave cavity, comprising at least a first and a second electric contact section (5, 6) extending along a first longitudinal side of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), wherein the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or to the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second longitudinal electric contact section (5, 6).

Claims

1. A method of operating a semiconductor laser (2) with a standing wave cavity (3) and a fast gain medium, wherein a gain relaxation time of the gain medium is smaller than the round-trip time in the standing wave cavity (3), comprising: generating standing optical waves in the standing wave cavity (3) of the laser (2), wherein an electrical laser beat-note with a spatially dependent amplitude (7) is generated; pumping the laser (2) with a DC current from a DC source (9) coupled to the standing wave cavity (3); and injecting an electrical AC signal into the standing wave cavity (3) with an AC injection device (10) to stabilize an optical frequency comb such that a spatial pattern of the injected electrical AC signal corresponds to the spatially dependent amplitude (7) of the electrical laser beat-note along a longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), wherein the injected electrical AC signal is within a range and/or within an integer multiple of the range, wherein the range is within ±1% of a natural round-trip frequency in the standing wave cavity (3).

2. The method according to claim 1, characterized in that the electrical AC signal is injected into the standing wave cavity (3) such that phases of an individual beat oscillation of adjacent laser lines are locked by repulsive means.

3. The method according to claim 1, characterized in that injecting the electrical AC signal corresponding to the amplitude (7) of the electrical laser beatnote comprises coupling the AC injection device (10) to at least a first (5) and a second electric contact section (6), and optionally one or more further electric contact sections (11), extending along a first longitudinal side of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3) such that the absolute value of the complex amplitude and/or the phase of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first (5) and the second electric contact section (6).

4. The method according to claim 3, characterized in that the electrical AC signal is injected to one of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) adjacent to the one end of the standing wave cavity (3) and, optionally: i) phase shifted by substantially 180° to another one of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) adjacent to the other end of the standing wave cavity (3); or ii) to another one of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) adjacent to the other end of the standing wave cavity (3) and phase shifted by substantially 180° to a yet another of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) substantially adjacent to a center region of the standing wave cavity (3) in the direction of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3).

5. The method according to claim 3, characterized in that the electrical AC signal is injected to one or more of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) of the standing wave cavity (3) corresponding to a local maximum of a defined curve, which corresponds to the spatially dependent amplitude (7) of the electrical laser beat-note or one of its higher harmonics or is a half-pi cosine curve from one end of the standing wave cavity (3) to the other end of the standing wave cavity (3) or one of its higher harmonics.

6. A method for frequency comb spectroscopy, characterized in that a first laser with a fast gain medium is operated according to claim 1.

7. The method according to claim 6, characterized by the following steps: a) emitting a first beam from the first laser; b) interacting the first beam with an analyte; c) optionally time delaying the first beam; d) directing the first beam at the standing wave cavity (3) of the first laser or at a detector; e) detecting multiheterodyne beating in the standing wave cavity (3) of the first laser or in the detector; and f) repeating steps a) to e) while modulating the frequency of the injected electrical AC signal.

8. The method according to claim 7, characterized by: step a) comprising splitting a second beam off the first beam after emitting the first beam from the first laser; and step d) comprising directing the second beam at the standing wave cavity (3) of the first laser or at the detector.

9. The method according to claim 6, characterized by: operating a second laser with a fast gain medium according to any of claims 1 to 5; emitting a first beam from an output of the first laser; emitting a second beam from an output of the second laser; optionally interacting the first beam and/or the second beam with an analyte; directing the first beam into the output of the second laser; optionally directing the second beam into the output of the first laser; and optionally measuring multiheterodyne beating at least one electric contact section of the first and/or the second laser where the electrical AC signal was injected.

10. The method according to claim 6, characterized by: operating a second laser with a fast gain medium according to any of claims 1 to 5; emitting a first beam from a first output of the first laser; emitting a second beam from a first output of the second laser; optionally interacting the first and/or the second beam with an analyte; directing the first beam to a first detector (29); directing the second beam to the first detector (29); and optionally each of the following steps: emitting a third beam from a second output of the first laser, emitting a fourth beam from a second output of the second laser, directing the third beam to a second detector (31), and directing the fourth beam to the second detector (31).

11. A laser assembly (1) comprising: a semiconductor laser (2) with a standing wave cavity (3) and a fast gain medium, wherein a gain relaxation time of the gain medium is smaller than the round-trip time in the standing wave cavity (3); a DC source (9) coupled to the standing wave cavity (3) for pumping the laser (2); an AC injection device (10) for injecting an electrical AC signal into the standing wave cavity (3) to stabilize an optical frequency comb, the AC injection device being suitable for producing an electrical AC signal within a range and/or within an integer multiple of the range, wherein the range is within ±1% of a natural round-trip frequency in the standing wave cavity (3); and at least a first and a second electric contact section (5, 6) extending along a first longitudinal side of a longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), wherein the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or to the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that a complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second longitudinal electric contact section (5, 6).

12. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 11, characterized in that: the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that an absolute value of the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by at least 10% with respect to the higher absolute value of the complex amplitude; or the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that a phase of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by between 90° and 270°.

13. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 11, characterized by an electric contact (4) extending along the first longitudinal side of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), and optionally essentially over the whole longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), wherein the electric contact (4) has at least the first electric contact section (5) and the second electric contact section (6), and optionally one or more further electric contact sections (11), wherein the DC source (9) is conductively connected to at least one of, and optionally all of, the first and second electric contact sections (5, 6), in particular also of the further electric contact sections (11).

14. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 13, characterized in that the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6), and optionally also the further electric contact sections (11), of the electric contact (4) are separated by substantially nonconducting splits in the electric contact (4).

15. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 13, characterized in that the first and second electric contact sections (5, 6), and optionally also the further electric contact sections (11), of the electric contact (4) are continuously connected to one another, wherein a grounded surface and the electric contact (4) form a capacitor with a capacitance, an imaginary part of the complex impedance being such that the absolute value of the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal at an edge of the first and second electric contact sections (5, 6), and optionally of the further electric contact sections (11) is less than 10% of the absolute value of the complex amplitude of an electrical AC signal injected in a center, in direction of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), of the respective first, second and optionally further electric contact section (5, 6, 11).

16. A spectrometer (20) for frequency comb spectroscopy of an analyte, characterized by a first laser assembly (21) according to claim 11.

17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the semiconductor laser comprises a quantum cascade laser or an interband cascade laser.

18. The method according to claim 5, characterized in that the electrical AC signal is injected, phase shifted by substantially 180°, to one or more of the first, second and further electric contact sections (5, 6, 11) of the standing wave cavity (3) corresponding to a local minimum of the defined curve.

19. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 11, wherein: the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that an absolute value of the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by at least 30% with respect to the higher absolute value of the complex amplitude; or the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that a phase of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by between 135° and 225°.

20. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 11, wherein: the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that an absolute value of the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by at least 50%, with respect to the higher absolute value of the complex amplitude; or the AC injection device (10) is coupled to the first and/or the second electric contact section (5, 6) such that a phase of the injected electrical AC signal differs for the first and the second electric contact section (5, 6) by substantially 180°.

21. The laser assembly (1) according to claim 15, characterized in that the imaginary part of the complex impedance being such that the absolute value of the complex amplitude of the injected electrical AC signal at the edge of the first and second electric contact sections (5, 6), and optionally of the further electric contact sections (11), is less than 5% of the absolute value of the complex amplitude of the electrical AC signal injected in the center, in direction of the longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity (3), of the respective first, second and optionally further electric contact section (5, 6, 11).

Description

[0126] In the following, the disclosure shall be further explained with figures, which show advantageous embodiments and variants and shall in no way be construed to be limiting to the claims. The figures show in detail:

[0127] FIG. 1 a schematic diagram of an embodiment of a laser assembly with two electric contact sections;

[0128] FIG. 2 a schematic diagram of an embodiment of the laser assembly with three electric contact sections;

[0129] FIG. 3 a schematic diagram of another embodiment of the laser assembly with three electric contact sections, adopted for injection locking adjusted to the second harmonic of the amplitude of the electrical laser beat-note;

[0130] FIG. 4 an embodiment of a spectrometer for single-comb spectroscopy;

[0131] FIG. 5 an embodiment of the spectrometer for dual-comb spectroscopy;

[0132] FIG. 6 another embodiment of the spectrometer for dual-comb spectroscopy;

[0133] FIG. 7 a plot of a self-detected dual-comb spectrum with locked and unlocked lasers;

[0134] FIG. 8 an advantageous embodiment of the spectrometer for dual-comb spectroscopy;

[0135] FIG. 9 plots of an optical beat-note spectrum as a function of the injected RF power and of an intensity spectrum, SWIFTS (a detailed SWIFTS characterization at 12 dBm) and the phase difference over the wavenumber;

[0136] FIG. 10 plots of the electrical laser beat-note of a free-running QCL comb and the intensity, SWIFTS and phase difference for a coherently injection locked QCL comb;

[0137] FIG. 11 another advantageous embodiment of the spectrometer for dual-comb spectroscopy;

[0138] FIG. 12 a SWIFTS setup (wherein the optical beat-note of the QCL is detected by the QWIP through an FTIR, amplified by a low-noise amplifier (LNA) and mixed down to approximately 40 MHz using a local oscillator (LO); the mixing product of the LO and the oscillator used for injection locking (RF) acts as reference for the lock-in amplifier; a polarized (POL) is used for adjustable attenuation);

[0139] FIG. 13 intensity and SWIFTS quadrature interferograms of the free-running QCL frequency comb with zoom around zero path;

[0140] FIG. 14 an intensity spectrum (top), a SWIFTS spectrum (middle) with expected SWIFTS amplitudes for full coherence (dots), and the phase difference (bottom) between adjacent comb lines retrieved from the SWIFTS data;

[0141] FIG. 15 SWIFTS spectra as a function of injected power;

[0142] FIG. 16 intensity spectra corresponding to FIG. 15;

[0143] FIG. 17 SWIFTS spectra for different injection frequencies at 12 dBm injected power;

[0144] FIG. 18 intensity spectra corresponding to FIG. 17;

[0145] FIG. 19 the high frequency modulation capabilities and a sketch of a device for repulsive frequency comb operation by coherent injection locking;

[0146] FIG. 20 the electrical laser beat-note tuning with the short section bias to obtain a narrow electrical laser beat-note;

[0147] FIG. 21 intensity and SWIFTS spectra, as well as the center burst of the corresponding interferograms (wherein the phases clearly show a phase balance state due to repulsive synchronization; the SWIFTS center burst shows the characteristic minimum at zero path difference);

[0148] FIG. 22 the working principle of an ICL active region (wherein fast intersubband balancing between injectors and the laser levels reduce the gain response time to picosecond time scales);

[0149] FIG. 23 that fast gain dynamics lead to parametric suppression via population pulsations (the faster the gain response, the more harmonics are repulsively coupled);

[0150] FIG. 24 a sketch of the three main states observed in Example B below, the unlocked and the in-phase state, as well as the repulsively synchronized phase balance state;

[0151] FIG. 25 injection locking range for three different injection powers (wherein the higher the power, the larger the locking range; the minimum might correspond to external enforced amplitude death);

[0152] FIG. 26 intensity and SWIFTS spectral maps at 5 dB injection power show that intermodal coherence is achieved within a range of approx. 800 kHz;

[0153] FIG. 27 the reconstructed time domain signal and instantaneous wavenumber of the repulsive synchronization state (where the data corresponds to SWIFTS data in FIG. 21);

[0154] FIG. 28 the impact of strong injection on the repulsive phase pattern and time domain signal under smaller laser bias (wherein the higher the injected power, the stronger the amplitude modulation, but the repulsive coupling remains to splay the phases).

[0155] FIG. 1 shows a preferable embodiment of the laser assembly 1 with a laser 2 with a fast gain medium and a standing wave cavity 3. Each end of the standing wave cavity 3, which is a Fabry-Perot cavity, comprises a partially transparent mirror. Below the laser assembly is the real part of the spatially dependent complex amplitude 7 of the electrical laser beat-note shown in an idealised schematic as a half-cosine curve from one end of the standing wave cavity 3 to its other end with its extrema at each end. This curve, as well as its higher harmonics, are a result of the boundary conditions in the standing wave cavity 3.

[0156] The laser assembly 1 comprises an electric contact 4, which extends along a first longitudinal side of the standing wave cavity 3, substantially over the whole longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity 3, and is split into a first electric contact section 5 and a second electric contact section 6 by a nonconducting split in the electric contact 4. Furthermore the laser assembly 1 comprises a grounded substrate 8, extending along a second longitudinal side of the standing wave cavity 3, substantially over the whole longitudinal extension of the standing wave cavity 3 and opposite of the first longitudinal side. Furthermore, the laser assembly 1 comprises a DC source 9 for pumping the laser 2, which is conductively connected to the first electric contact section 5 and to the second electric contact section 6, and an AC injection device 10, which is an RF oscillator and which is conductively connected to the first electric contact section 5. The first electric contact section 5 is adjacent to one end of the standing wave cavity 3. As such, the injected electrical AC signal is partially matched to the amplitude 7 of the electrical laser beat-note, since it has its maximum absolute value of the complex amplitude close to the end of the standing wave cavity 3, where the spatially dependent amplitude 7 shows a maximum, and is substantially zero everywhere else in the standing wave cavity 3.

[0157] The AC injection device 10 operates at a frequency, which is approximately the round-trip time of the beam in the standing wave cavity 3. As a result of injecting the electrical AC signal into the standing wave cavity 3, the longitudinal modes of the laser 2 are all equidistant resulting in the generation of a coherent frequency comb.

[0158] FIG. 2 shows another embodiment of the laser assembly 1, which in difference to the embodiment of FIG. 1 comprises a first electric contact section 5, a second electric contact section 6 and one further electric contact section 11. Again, the electric contact 4 is split into the electric contact section 5, 6, 11 by substantially nonconducting splits in the electric contact 4. The DC source is conductively connected to all electric contact sections 5, 6, 11. One output of the AC injection device 10 is conductively connected with the first electric contact section 5 and its other, oppositely poled output, is conductively connected to the one further electric contact section 11. Thus the first and the one further electric contact section 5, 11, which are both adjacent to different ends of the standing wave cavity 3, are injected an electrical AC signal with the same absolute value of the complex amplitude, but with opposite (i.e. shifted by 180°) phases, whereas the absolute value of the complex amplitude at the second contact section 6 is substantially zero. Thus, the inject electrical AC signal is adjusted to the spatially dependent amplitude 7 of the electrical laser beat-note, which has a phase shift of 180° between both ends of the cavity. Again, the AC injection device 10 comprises an RF oscillator and is operated (and suitable for being operated) at a frequency in the proximity of the round-trip time in the standing wave cavity 3.

[0159] FIG. 3 shows another preferable embodiment of the laser assembly 1, which also comprises three electric contact sections 5, 6, 11. However the laser assembly 1 of this embodiment is adopted for injection locking of the second harmonic of the spatially dependent amplitude of the electrical laser beat-note in the standing wave cavity 3. As such, the AC injection device, which again is an RF oscillator, is conductively connected to the first electric contact section 5 adjacent to one end of the standing wave cavity 3 and to the one further electric contact section 11 adjacent to the other end of the standing wave cavity 3 (without any phase shift, i.e. in the phase). The AC injection device is not connected to the second electric contact section 6. As such, the first electric contact section 5 and the one further electric contact section 11 receive an electrical AC signal with the same absolute value of the complex amplitude and phase. Here, the AC injection device is operating close to the second harmonic of the standing wave cavity roundtrip frequency, i.e. at a frequency in a vicinity of twice the round-trip frequency. The spatial profile of the second harmonic is in such a way that the front and rear end of the standing wave cavity 3 can be modulated with the same amplitude and phase. There could also be a third modulated electric contact section in the middle of the cavity that is modulated with a phase shift of 180° with respect to both ends of the standing wave cavity 3.

[0160] FIG. 4 shows an embodiment of a spectrometer 20 comprising a first laser assembly 21 with an AC injection device 10, e.g. one of the embodiments of the laser assembly 1 described above. The spectrometer furthermore comprises a modulation oscillator 22 for frequency modulating the AC injection device 10. The initial beam emitted from the first laser assembly 21 is collimated by a collimating lens 23 and then split into a first and a second beam by a beam splitter 24. The first beam is delayed by a temporally delaying element 25, which is a multipass cell and comprises an interaction zone for interacting the first beam with an analyte, and reflected back to the beam splitter by a mirror. The second beam is also reflected back to the beam splitter by a mirror. The first beam and the second beam are then combined by a beam combiner, which is the beam splitter 24 (e.g. a semitransparent mirror), onto a detector 26, which has a large enough bandwidth to detect multiheterodyne beating.

[0161] The beating and thus the repetition frequency in the standing wave cavity of the first laser assembly 21 is determined by the frequency of the RF oscillator used for injection locking. Thus, by modulating the frequency of the RF oscillator in time, e.g. by a rectangular signal, the distance between the teeth of the comb can be changed. The temporally delaying element 25 delays the first beam. Combining the delayed (first) and the undelayed (second) beam on a detector forms a heterodyne beating, because the delayed light has a slightly different intermodal difference frequency (i.e. the frequency interval between two comb teeth) as the non-delayed light. This multiheterodyne beating enables spectroscopic examination of the analyte. It is also possible that the multiheterodyne beating is detected in the laser assembly 21 itself.

[0162] FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 show two embodiment of the spectrometer 20 comprising a first laser assembly 21 and a second laser assembly 27, which differ in the configuration of the optical arrangement 28, which directs and focuses a first beam from an output of the first laser assembly 21 into an output of the second laser assembly 27 and a second beam from the output of the second laser assembly 27 into the output of the first laser assembly 21. The spectrometer. In the embodiment of FIG. 5, the optical arrangement 28 comprises a lens and a (tilted) flat mirror, whereas in the embodiment of FIG. 6, the optical arrangement 28 comprises a curved mirror. An RF spectrum analyzer (not shown) is connected to at least one electric contact section of the first laser assembly 21. The embodiments of FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 are particularly easy to be partially or completely implemented on a chip, e.g. using dielectric or plasmonic waveguides instead of free-space optics.

[0163] It is not necessary for an external detector to be provided for detecting the dual-comb beating of two frequency combs. Instead, as disclosed with this embodiment, it is possible to shine the light of one laser assembly providing a frequency comb into another laser assembly providing a frequency comb and extract the beating directly through one or more electric contact sections used for injecting the electrical AC signal into the standing wave cavity with an RF spectrum analyzer. The multiheterodyne beat consists of several narrow lines corresponding to pairs of lines of both frequency combs. However, if one laser should by unlocked by detuning the respective injection frequency, the well-defined lines vanish and only a broad peak without individual lines remains; such an unlocked multiheterodyne beat limits the applicability for spectroscopy purposes. This can be seen in FIG. 7, which shows two plots of a self-detected dual-comb spectrum, wherein the left subfigure shows the plot for both lasers being locked and the right subfigure shows the plot for one laser being unlocked. In FIG. 7, f.sub.0 is the round-trip frequency, which here is approximately 9 GHz.

[0164] FIG. 8 shows an advantageous embodiment of the spectrometer 20 comprising a first laser assembly 21 and a second laser assembly 27. A first beam from a first output of the first laser assembly 21 and a second beam from a first output of the second laser assembly 27 are directed into a first detector 29 by a first optical arrangement 30. The first optical arrangement 30 also comprises an interaction zone for interacting the first beam with an analyte. Furthermore, a third beam from a second output of the first laser assembly 21 and a forth beam from a second output of the second laser assembly 27 are directed into a second detector 31 by a second optical arrangement 32, which contains an interaction zone for interacting the fourth beam with a reference sample. (A reference sample is not necessarily required, there may also be for example no interaction at all for the forth beam.) The optical arrangement 30, 32 can for example be (on-chip) dielectric or plasmonic waveguides or contain free-space optical elements such as lenses, mirrors and beam-splitters.

[0165] Such a (dual-comb) spectrometer 20 consisting of two lasers assemblies 21, 27 according to any of the laser assemblies disclosed herein and at least one, preferably and in this embodiment two, detectors can easily be integrated on a chip and has the advantage that it is less sensitive against various environmental conditions, e.g. temperature fluctuations. Injection locking of the frequency combs, i.e. operating the laser as disclosed herein, mitigates the effect of strong optical feedback that is omnipresent in on-chip optics.

[0166] Preferably, the two laser assemblies 21, 27 are contained on the same chip as the two detectors 29, 31.

[0167] By shining always one laser beam from each laser assembly into a corresponding detector, one can measure the multiheterodyne beating of the light that did not interact with the analyte in the second detector 31 and the beating of the light that did interact with the analyte in the first detector 29. This enables the spectroscopic examination of the analyte by dual-comb techniques.

[0168] The detectors 29, 31 and/or the optical arrangements 30, 32 can be arranged such that the two beams entering each detector 29, 31 enter them from the same direction or from a different/opposite direction. If they are arranged such that the laser light from both laser assemblies 21, 27 enters the detectors 29, 31 from the same side, the stabilization against optical feedback via injection locking allows configurations, where a part of the light focused onto the respective detector 29, 31 is also fed into one or both laser of the laser assemblies 21, 27, e.g. if the laser assemblies 21, 27 and the detectors 29, 31 are spatially close.

[0169] FIG. 9 illustrates one possible benefit of the invention, namely that coherent injection locking of laser with a high phase-noise to an external AC source as disclosed herein produces a coherent frequency comb with very low phase noise. The left subfigure of FIG. 9 shows the microwave spectrum of the optical beat-note of a semiconductor laser frequency comb. The laser beat-note of the free-running frequency comb (not visible), i.e. without injection locking or any other stabilization measures, is broad. This is a consequence of relatively large amplitude and phase noise of the comb modes. As the injected RF power, i.e. the power of the AC injection device, is increased, the broad electrical laser beat-note of the (for this Fig.) QCL is pulled towards the injected beat-note. Finally, the QCL electrical laser beat-note is completely controlled by the injected signal and the broad noise-pedestal disappears. A characterization of the frequency comb in this state using “Shifted Wave Interference Fourier Transform Spectroscopy” (SWIFTS) is shown on the right subfigure of FIG. 9. If the intensity spectrum (plot on the top right) and the SWIFTS spectrum (plot on the center right) overlap on the whole span of the spectrum, this means that the frequency comb is fully coherent on the whole span of the spectrum, which is clearly visible. Furthermore, the characteristic phase profile (plot on the bottom left) ranging from 0 to 2*pi observed also in free-running frequency combs is preserved upon injection of an external AC, in particular RF, signal.

[0170] FIG. 10 illustrates another benefit of the method of operating a laser and the laser assembly as disclosed herein, namely that appropriately injection locked QCL frequency combs are less sensitive against optical feedback. Usually, QCL frequency combs are very sensitive to optical feedback. This can be seen in the example of the electrical laser beat-note of a QCL frequency comb, in the left subfigure of FIG. 10. The curve with a peak was measured in a configuration, where optical feedback was minimized. It is very narrow and stable, indicating that all modes of the comb are equidistant with very little phase noise. The other curve was measured in a configuration, where a polished Si wafer reflected back a considerable portion of the light emitted by the laser. The electrical laser beat-note becomes significantly broader and weaker indicating the loss of coherence. The right subfigure of FIG. 10 shows plots for a laser operated as disclosed herein, i.e. an appropriately coherently injection locked QCL frequency comb. The SWIFTS characterization (plot on the center right) of the electrically injection locked laser in the same configuration as for the measurement of the unstable electrical laser beat-note demonstrates that injection locking is able to mitigate the fatal effect of feedback. Despite intense optical feedback, the laser remains coherent, which is proven by the SWIFTS spectrum. The characteristic phase profile ranging from 0 to 2*pi is preserved. The stabilization of semiconductor frequency combs against optical feedback is especially important in real-life applications, as optical feedback is omnipresent and limits the versatility and range of application of semiconductor laser frequency combs greatly.

[0171] FIG. 11 shows another advantageous embodiment of the spectrometer 20, similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 8, comprising a first laser assembly 21 and a second laser assembly 27. The spectrometer 20 of this embodiment is particularly well for being implemented on a chip. Herein, the first optical arrangement 30 and the second optical arrangement 32 each comprise an optical waveguide integrated on the chip. Therein the optical waveguide of first optical arrangement 30 has an optical path length L.sub.1 and the optical waveguide of the second optical arrangement 30 has an optical path length L.sub.2<<L.sub.1, such that laser beams being directed through the first optical arrangement 30 interact with an analyte in the vicinity of the spectrometer 20, whereas laser beams being directed through the second optical arrangement 32 do substantially not interact with the analyte in the vicinity of the spectrometer 20. As such, an analyte surrounding the chip, on which the spectrometer 20 is implemented, can be analyzed and the absorption spectrum be recorded.

[0172] The following examples A and B shall further explain the inventive idea, while not being limiting to the claims.

Example A

[0173] This example shall provide conclusive proof that all teeth of a QCL frequency comb can be locked coherently with an AC injection device, in particular an external RF source, by injecting an electrical AC signal adjusted to the electrical laser beat-note, in particular by applying an RF signal only to one end of the laser (standing wave) cavity. This is the section of the cavity, where the electrical beating is most susceptible to the injected signal due to its inherent spatio-temporal pattern.

[0174] Proving frequency comb operation of a QCL is a challenging task because the fast gain recovery time prevents the formation of short and intense pulses. Consequently, traditional methods based on non-linear autocorrelation techniques cannot be employed. Instead, one can use a linear phase-sensitive autocorrelation method called ‘Shifted Wave Interference Fourier Transform Spectroscopy’ (SWIFTS, FIG. 12). SWIFTS enables the direct measurement of the coherence and phases of the emitted comb spectrum. The light emitted by the QCL is shined through a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and detected by a fast photodetector. For this purpose, there was designed and fabricated an RF optimized quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) matched to the laser emission wavelength. By measuring the two quadratures X and Y of the optical beat-note as function of the mirror delay τ one obtains the complex interferogram of the portion of light that is locked to the RF oscillator. Contributions of mode pairs that are beating at another frequency are filtered by the lock-in. Subsequently, one can retrieve the SWIFTS spectrum by applying a fast Fourier transform to the complex interferogram. In order to discuss this in more detail, one can consider the electric field of the comb that is composed of discrete modes with amplitudes A.sub.n and frequencies ω.sub.n=ω.sub.0+nω.sub.r, where n is an integer and ω.sub.0 and ω.sub.r are the carrier envelope offset frequency and repetition frequency of the comb. The complex SWIFTS spectrum is then given by (A.1:)

[00001]$ℱ\left(X+iY\right)\left(\omega \right)=\underset{n}{.Math.}.Math.A_n.Math..Math.A_{n-1}.Math.e^{i\left({\varphi }_n-{\varphi }_{n-1}\right)}\times \left[\delta \left(\omega -{\omega }_{n-\frac{1}{2}}\right)+\delta \left(\omega -{\omega }_r/2\right)\right].$

[0175] The complex SWIFTS spectrum in eq. A.1 contains the phase difference of adjacent comb lines. Since only the part of the light locked to the phase reference is measured by the lock-in, the SWIFTS amplitudes are a direct and spectrally resolved measure of the intermodal coherence. If two modes are fully coherent (i.e., phase-locked), the SWIFTS amplitude is commensurate with the geometric average of the amplitudes |A.sub.nA.sub.n−1| of the intensity spectrum. If, however, the relative phase-noise of a mode pair is non-zero, the SWIFTS amplitude decreases due to the narrow filter bandwidth of the lock-in.

[0176] Before investigating coherently injection locked frequency combs, it is insightful to analyze the behavior the freerunning comb, i.e. without RF injection or any other stabilization method. For this purpose, the electrical beatnote is used as phase reference. A particularly interesting feature is already conspicuous in the recorded interferograms (see zoom in FIG. 13). Both SWIFTS quadratures have a minimum at zero-path difference of the FTIR mirrors, whereas the intensity interferogram has its maximum there. This phenomenon is related to the naturally favored comb state in QCLs, where the phases are arranged in a way that minimizes the amplitude of the optical beatnote and thus the amplitude modulation of the laser intensity. This is due to the short sub-ps upper state lifetime in QCL active regions. The corresponding SWIFTS spectrum (FIG. 14) has the same shape as the intensity spectrum without showing any spectral holes. This proves that indeed all teeth of the comb are phase-locked. The SWIFTS phases, i.e. the phase difference of adjacent comb lines, cover a range of 2π from the lowest to the highest frequency mode. This is consistent with the observation of a dominantly frequency modulated output of the QCL with a linearly chirped instantaneous frequency.

[0177] The first challenge to prove coherent injection locking is to show the capability to lock the QCL electrical laser beat-note to the external oscillator. To do so, we drive the QCL at a bias where it operates in the high-phase noise regime and shine it directly on the fast QWIP. We then record the RF spectrum of the QWIP current with a spectrum analyzer while keeping the injection frequency fixed and ≈100 kHz below the electrical laser beat-note (FIG. 9, left subfigure). As the injected RF power is increased, two sidebands appear above and below the frequency of the optical beatnote due to the mixing of the beatnote and the injected signal. The broad beatnote is pulled towards the frequency of the injected signal as the RF power is further increased to 5 dBm and finally locks at 8 dBm. Two sidepeaks that are roughly 20 dB weaker than the initial beatnote remain. At 12 dBm, also these sidepeaks vanish and the microwave spectrum of the optical beating is fully controlled by the injected signal. The noise floor around the locked narrow beatnote is roughly 30 dB weaker than the peak power of the originally broad beatnote. This proves that the vast majority of the optical beatnote power is locked. In order to highlight spectral regions which are locked to the external oscillator, we measure the SWIFTS and intensity spectrum as function of the injected power (FIGS. 15 and 15). The SWIFTS amplitude starts to grow considerably at 5 dBm—equal to the power level at which the broad beatnote in FIG. 9 (left subfigure) is pulled towards the injection frequency. In the region between 8 and 12 dBm, especially the SWIFTS amplitude of the comb lines around 1230 cm-1 and 1265 cm-1 increases suggesting that these modes are responsible for the weak sidepeaks of the optical beatnote in FIG. 9 (left subfigure). A detailed snapshot of the SWIFTS characterization at 12 dBm RF power (FIG. 9, right subfigure) shows that the SWIFTS amplitudes are commensurate with the values expected from the intensity spectrum. This proves that the entire spectrum of the QCL is phase locked to the RF oscillator. The SWIFTS phases feature the same phase pattern as observed in free-running comb operation, covering a range of 2π (FIG. 14). It is remarkable that the frequencies of the intermode beatings are locked to the external modulation while their phases remain in the natural state of a free-running QCL frequency comb instead of synchronizing to the injected signal. In order to investigate the influence of the injection frequency on the coherence of the QCL, one can sweep it across the broad beatnote. The SWIFTS spectra (FIG. 17) show that the QCL is coherently locked to the injected signal in a narrow range of approximately 100 kHz around the frequency of the beatnote. Outside of this locking range, only a few strong modes contribute to the SWIFTS spectrum. The narrow locking range could explain why previous studies concluded that injection locking leads to a loss of intermodal coherence. The electrical injection has an influence on the intensity spectrum only in the locking range (FIG. 18).

[0178] In real-life applications, QCL frequency combs have to withstand harsh conditions while maintaining coherence. Among these conditions is optical feedback. We illustrate the fatal effect of optical feedback on a free-running QCL frequency comb by replacing the attenuating polarizer (POL in FIG. 12) by a polished silicon wafer perpendicular to the QCL beam. In this configuration, the QCL is subject to both intense static feedback from the Si wafer as well as temporally varying feedback from the QWIP facet due to the scanning FTIR mirrors. While the electrical beatnote is narrow and stable if the beam is attenuated by the polarizer (FIG. 10, left subfigure), it becomes significantly broader and weaker upon exposure to strong optical feedback indicating the loss of coherence. This fatal effect of optical feedback is omnipresent in dual-comb spectrometers based on QCL combs. Expensive and bulky optical isolators have to be employed to ensure stable comb operation, impairing the capabilities of miniaturization. In contrast, both the coherence and the phase characteristics of an injection locked comb are preserved even in presence of strong optical feedback (FIG. 7). A prototype self-detected dualcomb setup highlights the enormous potential of coherent electrical injection locking for miniaturization. The light of two QCLs located on the same chip is shined directly into each other without any optically isolating elements in between (corresponding to FIG. 7). When both lasers are locked, the self-detected dual-comb beat spectrum consists of numerous equidistant lines with a spacing of Δf.sub.rep=7.4 MHz. If the injection frequency of one laser is detuned by 200 kHz—thus leaving the locking range (FIG. 17)—the multiheterodyne signal becomes broad and no dual-comb lines are visible anymore. These results open up new avenues towards all-solid-state MIR spectrometers, where stabilization of the combs and the ability to cope with intense feedback are vital.

[0179] These investigations demonstrate that electrical injection locking of MIR QCLs is a versatile technique that enables the generation of coherent frequency combs if the inherent spatio-temporal pattern of the electrical beatnote is taken into account. The fact that the repetition frequency is fixed by the injected signal can be utilized to stabilize the carrier envelope offset frequency against a narrow molecular absorption line via the driving current. The possibility of all-electric stabilization using low-budget electronics, as those found in every mobile phone, will lead to a new class of miniaturized dual-comb spectrometers.

[0180] Device: The investigated QCL is uncoated and operating at 8 μm The laser has a relatively low group delay dispersion. The laser is mounted epi-side-up on a copper submount. The temperature of the submount is kept at 15° for all measurements presented using a Peltier element and PTC5000 temperature controller. A HP 8341B synthesized sweeper is used for injection locking. The RF signal is injected close to the front end of the QCL cavity through 40 GHz two-terminal RF probes. It has to be noted that due to the large parasitic capacitance, the RF signal is strongly damped 30-40 dB. In case of an RF optimized device, split contacts are possible to prevent the simultaneous excitation of both ends with the same phase.

[0181] SWIFTS: The QWIP used to detect the optical beatnote is fabricated in square mesa geometry with 100 μm side length. The mesa is connected to a coplanar transmission line with a short wirebond resulting in a cutoff frequency slightly below 10 GHz. The optical beatnote detected by the QWIP is amplified and mixed down to below 50 MHz. A Zurich Instruments HF2LI lock-in amplifier and the Helium-Neon trigger of the FTIR were used to record the SWIFTS interferograms. The complex sum of both quadrature interferograms can be written as (A.2:)

[00002]$\left(X+iY\right)\left(\tau \right)=\underset{n}{.Math.}{A}_n{A}_{n-1}^{*}\left[\cos \left(\frac{{\omega }_r\tau }{2}\right)+\cos \left({\omega }_{n-\frac{1}{2}}\tau \right)\right].$

[0182] Eq. A.2 differs slightly from previously published work because the FTIR used here (Bruker Vertex 70v) moves both interferometer arms by ±τ/2 instead of just one arm by τ.

[0183] Self-detected dual-comb spectrum: The two QCLs on the dualcomb chip are roughly 1 mm apart from each other. The light emitted from the front facets of the dual-comb chip is collimated using an anti-reflection coated ZnSe lens with 1.5 inch focal length. By aligning a mirror in front of the lens, the light of one laser is reflected into the other. The dual-comb beat around 8.7 GHz is extracted directly from the laser using a RF probe and recorded with a spectrum analyzer (acquisition time≈0.2 s).

Example B

[0184] This example shall demonstrate a robust all-electrical technique to generate optical frequency combs in the mid-infrared using ICL. It is shown that ICLs naturally favor FM-type comb operation, the same as has been observed in QCL frequency combs, suggesting that the previous believe that interband cascade lasers possess slow enough gain dynamics that can potentially allow passive mode locking has to be questioned. The facts that ICLs with its large interband lifetime naturally favors repulsive synchronization contradicts simple explanations based on the lifetime of the laser transitions and suggests that other relevant mechanisms have been previously overseen. We also demonstrate that by electric injection locking it is possible to enforce the naturally unfavored in-phase synchronization state. In this actively mode locked regime, the device generates short pulse trains with picosecond pulse widths and serves as a first proof that multiple normal modes can be excited by external modulation.

[0185] Frequency Comb Operation of ICLs:

[0186] To investigate optical frequency comb formation in interband cascade lasers is again utilized a technique, referred to as shifted wave intermode beat Fourier transform spectroscopy (SWIFTS). This technique is based on the spectrally resolved measurement of the fundamental intermode beatings using a fast photodetector and a Fourier transform interferometer (FTIR). A more detailed description can be found below. Key is, that SWIFTS enables one to measure both the amplitude and phase of the fundamental intermode beatings, i.e. the relative phase between adjacent comb lines. The phases of the comb lines can then be calculated by the cumulative sum, which together with the amplitudes obtained from the intensity spectrum, allows the direct reconstruction of the time domain signal of comb states. Here are plotted the phases of the intermode beatings rather than their cumulative sum to emphasize the characteristic intermode beat phase patterns that arise from phase locking via repulsive or attractive coupling.

[0187] FIG. 19 shows a sketch of the device with two sections. To optimize both thermal and RF modulation properties, a long section with a thin passivation layer is kept at a constant bias and a shorter section with a thick passivation layer to reduce the parasitic capacity allows efficient RF modulation. Furthermore, as discussed in more detailed in the methods section, it is key to apply the modulation only to a part of the laser, similarly as it is done for active mode locking. A first condition of optical frequency operation is the observation of a narrow beat note. A narrow beatnote arises when at least a part of the intermode beatings are synchronized (or if two modes dominate the spectrum). To study the synchronization capabilities in freerunning (without external modulation) it was specifically looked for bias conditions that show a relatively narrow beatnote. The waterfall plot showing the beatnote while sweeping the bias around the region of interest is shown in FIG. 20. The spectral width of the beatnote is similar to beatnotes observed in QCL in the so called high phase noise regime. In order to achieve full synchronization with low phase noise, there was applied a weak RF modulation matched to the observed beatnote frequency (round-trip frequency). It can be found that when perfectly matched to the natural beatnote frequency, a modulation as low as −30 dBm is sufficient, in order to obtain the intermode phases with SWIFTS. The amount of coherence and the intermode phase pattern are shown in FIG. 21 together with a zoom of the recorded interferograms at zero path difference. The SWIFTS amplitudes, which are a measure of the intermodal coherence, clearly show that frequency comb operation is obtained over the entire emission spectrum. Other than one might expect form an interband laser, the obtained comb state is not a mode-locked state with a short pulse train. Here, one can observe a very distinct intermode phase pattern that covers the entire phase space from 0 to −2π. The particular phase distribution corresponds to a dominantly frequency modulated (FM) waveform and is similar to what has very recently been observed in mid-infrared QCL frequency combs.

[0188] ICLs as Fast Gain Medium

[0189] The fact that ICLs behave more similar to QCLs in terms of their non-linear temporal dynamics as one might have expected, suggests that the life time of the laser transition is not the main parameter that determines the gain dynamics. Here, we emphasize that it is the way how carriers are injected into the laser levels that governs the fast temporal dynamics in ICLs.

[0190] In rate equation models, as those that can be found in textbooks and scientific papers, it is commonly assumed that the laser levels are filled via a constant pump rate. This is a quite good approximation for many kinds of lasers, such as optically pumped lasers, as well as diode lasers. However, as it should be argued, it entirely neglects a major mechanism in case of ICLs and QCLs. In ICLs and QCLs carriers are injected via fast intersubband scattering processes from the so called injector region. There, the pump rate corresponds to the net rate, which results from fast back and fourth scattering processes that happen at picosecond timescales. Assuming a constant pump rate, as it is commonly done also for this type of lasers, is thus a rather weak approximation, which completely neglects fast carrier balancing in lasers with intersubband injectors. While in QCLs it might have a minor impact, as also the laser transition is fast, in ICLs it completely changes the expected behavior. FIG. 22 sketches the working principle of an ICL. Electron-hole pairs are generated at the so called semi-metallic interface (SMI), which is realized by coupling hole and electron type subbands at a type-II broken gap semiconductor interface. Due to the internal carrier generation no doping is required, although it has been shown that high n-doping in the electron injector can significantly improve the performance of ICLs 23. The generated electrons and holes are injected into the upper and lower laser levels via fast intersubband scattering. We want to emphasize here again, that the fast intersubband scattering occurs in both directions, which leads to a fast balancing process between the injectors and the corresponding laser levels. The fast intersubband balancing regions are highlighted in FIG. 22 with grey rectangles.

[0191] The interplay of fast injector balancing has three main implications. First, the gain dynamics become fast enough to enable strong four-wave mixing via population pulsations at several harmonics of the round trip frequency (see FIG. 23). Second, population pulsations will lead to a charge oscillations between the injectors and the laser levels, which are in-phase in all periods. The resulting displacement current makes it possible to observe a strong beatnote at the laser contacts and enables its synchronization to an external modulation. Third, the fast population response occurs via scattering to the injector and not via scattering between the laser levels. Thus, a large amount of energy can be stored within one round-trip. This is in contrast to QCLs, where the short non-radiative lifetime of the laser transition limits the capability to store energy over one round-trip. This is a main argument why QCLs cannot emit ultra short pulses with peak intensities higher than their continuous continuous wave value.

[0192] Repulsive Intermode Beat Synchronization

[0193] The main coupling mechanism responsible for frequency comb formation in fast gain media is four-wave mixing due to population pulsations, which leads to a phase sensitive coherent loss mechanism. Because of its similarity to oscillator arrays with repulsive global mean-field coupling, it should be related to repulsive mean-field coupling with the population pulsation being the mean-field. An intuitive example, that explains why population pulsation in fast gain media result in repulsive coupling, is a three mode situation with a dominant center and two weak side modes. As derived in Mansuripur et al., “Single-mode instability in standing-wave lasers: The quantum cascade laser as a self-pumped parametric oscillator.” in Phys. Rev. A 94 (2016), the population pulsation at the difference frequency between the center mode its weak side modes will result in a parametric gain contribution with a negative sign, thus referred to as parametric suppression. The total gain of each sideband consists of the Lorentzian shaped gain of the two-level system, incoherent gain due to spatial hole burning, plus a negative parametric contribution due to population pulsation. In the case that the intermode beatings show opposite sign, thus often referred to as FM type, the two contributions balance each other and the population pulsation remains zero. This state sees more gain and is thus favored among the in-phase (amplitude modulate, AM) state. In case of fundamental frequency comb operation the spectrum can consist of hundreds of modes and such simple conclusions are difficult to be drawn. Each pair of laser lines results in a beating at its difference frequency. Not yet being phase locked, each pair beats at slightly different frequency due to the cavity dispersion, i.e. each pair sees a different round-trip frequency. Now, we imaging that all pairs are represented by oscillators that are globally coupled trough the population pulsation. If the dispersion is low enough and the coupling is sufficiently large, the oscillators can synchronize. As the coupling is of repulsive type the phases will be chosen in a very particular manner, such that the mean-field (population pulsation) is minimized. States that minimize the mean-field oscillation are commonly referred to as phase balance states and have been studied in many different fields, ranging from splay states in Josephson junctions to cluster states in complex networks. The more oscillators are coupled, the more balance states can exist. It is the stability that determines if a state can be observed. It was shown that more complex couplings, e.g. higher harmonic couplings can reduce the number of favored balances states. Harmonic FM waveforms as those described by Bessel functions were initially believed to be the naturally favored comb state in QCLs, however, they are only one out of many possible phase balance states and have not been observed in experiments. In ICL frequency combs, we observe a very particular balance state, where the intermode phases follow a nearly monotonic behavior over the emission spectrum covering the entire unit circle, similarly to what has been recently observed in QCL frequency combs. This indicates that a very complex coupling mechanism is present that favors exactly this state among others. We attribute this partly to higher harmonic population pulsations. In fast gain media four-wave mixing via population pulsations is also possible between pairs of next neighbors, next next neighbor, etc. (see FIG. 23) The laser will favor a state, where all harmonics of the population pulsation are minimized.

[0194] FIG. 24 illustrates the unlocked state, in-phase synchronization, that would lead to periodic short pulse emission, and the particular repulsive synchronization pattern observed in ICL and QCL frequency combs. As shown in the figure, balancing is also achieved for higher harmonic intermode beatings, where the phase pattern for the nth harmonic approximately follows a phase distribution from 0 to 2π*n. It should be believed that also the remaining group velocity dispersion (GVD) has an impact on the phase pattern. From this and recent measurements in QCLs, one can identify the tendency that a smaller remaining GVD leads to a more linear phase pattern, while a larger non-constant GVD leads to more complex patterns. Because of the remaining GVD in our device, external stabilization via injection locking is required. FIG. 25 shows the optical beatnote while sweeping the injection frequency for three different weak injection power levels, showing the expected scaling of the locking range with power. The intensity and SWIFTS spectral maps shown in FIG. 26 proof, that intermodal coherence and thus comb operation is achieved over the entire spectral range. As pointed out before, SWIFTS allows the reconstruction of the time domain signal, which is shown in FIG. 27. The instantaneous frequency shows a saw-tooth shape, sweeping over the spectral range within one round-trip. This behavior exactly matches, what has been recently observed in QCLs.

[0195] Repulsive Synchronization and AM Waveforms

[0196] In this section the impact of strong external forcing on repulsively synchronized comb states will be discussed. To discuss the impact of electrical injection locking in ICLs, it is important to emphasize the distinct delinking of the repulsive coupling of the intermode beat oscillators at each harmonic to their mean-fields and the attractive coupling of the mean-fields to the injected signal. Putting it differently, while it is plausible that the mean-field can be directly in-phase synchronized to injected modulation (via the coupling of the population inversion and the displacement current), it is even more intrigue that the individual intermode beat oscillators can still “freely” choose their phase to minimize the mean-field loss. Applying a small but large enough injection signal, the mean-field will try to synchronize to minimize loss, but the amplitude will remain unchanged. In this regime, the inherent phase characteristics of the repulsively phase locked frequency comb are preserved.

[0197] At this point, exciting implications can be drawn. Applying a larger injection signal, larger than that of the mean-field, the mean-field tries to follow the injected signal to minimize loss. This leads to a continuous transition of the phases pattern of more and more AM type characteristic, while the coupling mechanism remains of repulsive type. This is exactly what we observe in the experiments, as shown in FIG. 28. To highlight this behavior, we operate the ICL closer to threshold to increase the ratio between the strong injection signal to the small natural beating. There, the output signal already shows a quite significant amplitude modulation under weak injection. With increasing injection power, the slope of the phase pattern decreases and a more and more AM type modulation can be observed in the reconstructed time domain signal. Here, we want to emphasize that although the signal is dominantly amplitude modulated, its phase pattern remains determined by repulsive synchronization. This means, that the internal coupling tries to splay the phases and that the narrowing is only due to the strong externally enforced modulation of the mean-field. As a result, the time domain signal does not show short pulse formation, but its envelop tries follows the external modulation.

CONCLUSION

[0198] It was demonstrated that against common believe, ICLs are fast gain media and share more properties with QCLs than previously expected. In ICL and QCLs carriers are injected via fast intersubband transitions from an injector region, which makes them fundamentally different to other types of lasers. We then argue that the impact of population pulsations on the carrier injection rate cannot be neglected in this type of lasers and that fast carrier balancing between the laser levels and the injector is responsible for the fast gain dynamics in ICLs. By weak external synchronization, we are able to obtain robust frequency comb operation in ICLs for the first time with a sufficient proof. A very particular phase pattern has been observed, which is similar to that recently found in QCL frequency combs. This shows that ICLs are indeed fast gain media that favor a coherent balance state, where the intermode beatings at several harmonics are repulsively synchronized to minimize population pulsations. From this finding one has to question the previous believe that passive mode locking can be realized with this type of laser. We show that under strong electrical injection the laser remains in a repulsive synchronization state with a more and more amplitude modulated waveform. However, the repulsive coupling still spays the phases, resulting in very broad pulses.

[0199] Methods

[0200] Device fabrication: The laser ridges were fabricated with standard mask photolithography, reactive ion etching to device the laser waveguides, silicon nitride for the passivation layers and sputtered TiAu for the contact pads. The substrate was thinned to 160 μm and TiAu was sputtered on the backside and the devices were mounted epi-side up using indium on a copper mount. Different thickness of the passivation layer have been used to optimize the device performance in terms of output power and modulation capability.

[0201] Measurement setup: The devices were mounted on a copper submount, thermo-electrically stabilized to 15C. In order to improve the noise properties of our laser driver, we used home-build filters. The accuracy of temperature stabilization and the noise of the laser drivers play a crucial role for the performed measurements.

[0202] Relevance of the spatial beatnote profile: A very important aspect has to be considered when synchronizing the mean-field (population pulsation) to an external modulation. Recently, it has been found that the electrical beatnote at the round-trip frequency and its harmonics follow characteristic spatial patterns in standing wave lasers. Because of the boundary condition of the modes in the cavity, any beating between adjacent lines will follow a half wave cosine function along the cavity. Thus, at the round-trip frequency both ends beat with anti-phase and there is a minimum in the center. The same but with different spatial profile holds for all harmonics. As all intermode beatings of the same harmonic follow the same spatial pattern, it can be assumed to be irrelevant for repulsive synchronization. However, for external synchronization via electrical injection locking it is crucial to consider the anti-phase oscillation of both ends of the laser at the round-trip time. To achieve a significant spatial overlap with this inherent profile, we only modulate one end of the laser with a specifically RF optimized geometry (see FIG. 19).

[0203] SWIFTS: The SWIFTS concept was realized using a fast QWIP placed at the output window of a FTIR. The emitted light of the ICL is shined through the FTIR onto the QWIP. A local oscillator mixes down the QWIP signal to ≈40 MHz. The quadrature components X and Y of the QWIP signal in dependence of the delay time τ gives us two correlating interferograms for the RF locked part of each quadrature component and were measured using a lock-in amplifier. The reference signal is obtained by mixing of a local oscillator with the RF source. All interferograms were recorder by the locki-in using the trigger from the FTIR. Note, that our used FTIR moves each arm by ±τ/2. The complex sum of the interferograms is therefore given by (Eq. B.1:)

[00003]$\left(X+iY\right)\left(\tau \right)=\underset{n}{.Math.}{A}_n{A}_{n-1}^{*}\left[\cos \left(\frac{{\omega }_r\tau }{2}\right)+\cos \left({\omega }_{n-\frac{1}{2}}\tau \right)\right].$

[0204] By applying the fast fourier transformation using zero-padding, peak fitting, both amplitude and phase of all intermode beatings can be directly obtained. The intermode beatings describes the coherence and phases between adjacent comb modes. The phases of the modes can be calculated by the cumulative sum of the intermode beating phases, which together with the intensity spectrum allows the reconstruction of the time domain signal of a comb state.