Conjugate including peptide molecule capable of self-assembly in cell organelle and pharmaceutical composition for preventing or treating cancer including conjugate

Abstract

Disclosed are a conjugate including a mitochondria-targeting moiety and a peptide molecule capable of self-assembly; and a pharmaceutical composition for preventing or treating cancer including the conjugate as an active ingredient.

Claims

1. A conjugate comprising: at least one mitochondria-targeting moiety and a peptide represented by (Xaa).sub.n-Lys, the mitochondria-targeting moiety being bound to a lysine (Lys) of the peptide, wherein Xaa represents an amino acid, n indicates the number of Xaa bound via a peptide bond, n is 2, Xaa is selected from the group consisting of valine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, cyclohexylalanine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, wherein a beta-sheet secondary structure is formed between at least two amino acids, and the peptide is comprised in a beta sheet structure.

2. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein n is 2, and the amino acid is selected from the group consisting of phenylalanine, cyclohexylalanine, and valine.

3. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein a hydroxy group of a C-terminus carboxyl group of the lysine is substituted with a group selected from an amine group, an alkyl group, an alcohol group, a ketone group, an acyl group, an ester group, an ether group, an acetyl group, an acyl halide group, and an aldehyde group.

4. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein the number of the mitochondria-targeting moiety bound to the peptide is an integer from 1 to the number of amine groups present in the peptide represented by (Xaa).sub.n-Lys.

5. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein the mitochondria-targeting moiety is triphenylphosphonium (TPP).

6. The conjugate of claim 1, wherein the peptide is bound to the mitochondria-targeting moiety directly or via a linker.

7. The conjugate of claim 1, further comprising a fluorophore, the fluorophore being bound to the peptide.

8. The conjugate of claim 7, wherein the fluorophore is bound to an N-terminus of the peptide via an amide bond.

9. The conjugate of claim 7, wherein the fluorophore is selected from the group consisting of pyrene, 4-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD), perylene, naphthalene, and coronene.

10. The conjugate of claim 7, represented by Formula 2 or Formula 3: ##STR00003## wherein R is the C-terminus of the peptide and is selected from at least one of the group consisting of a hydroxy group (—OH), an amine group, an alkyl group, an alcohol group, a ketone group, an acyl group, an ester group, an ether group, an acetyl group, an acyl halide group, and an aldehyde group, wherein the alkyl group, the alcohol group, the ketone group, the acyl group, the ester group, the ether group, the acetyl group, and the acyl halide group each independently have carbon atoms in a range of 1 to 20, 1 to 10, or 1 to 5.

11. A method of treating cancer, the method comprising: administering the conjugate of claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, to a subject, wherein the amino acid is phenylalanine, cyclohexylalanine, or valine, and wherein the cancer is selected from cervical cancer, skin cancer, prostate cancer, mammary cancer, or breast cancer.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the conjugate undergoes self-assembly in mitochondria of the cancer cells to induce apoptosis.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The foregoing and other aspects will become apparent and more readily appreciated from the following description of the embodiments, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which:

(2) FIG. 1 is a reaction scheme that illustrates a process of synthesis of Mito-FF, according to an embodiment;

(3) FIG. 2 is a schematic view that illustrates a molecular structure of Mito-FF, according to an embodiment;

(4) FIG. 3 is a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image that shows Mito-FF present in water, according to an embodiment;

(5) FIG. 4 is a graph of Log (C) (μm) versus (vs.) I.sub.344/I.sub.339, which shows determination of a critical aggregation concentration (CAC) by a pyrene excitation method, according to an embodiment;

(6) FIG. 5 is a schematic view that illustrates a result of a molecular simulation of Mito-FF via coarse-grained molecular simulation (CGMS), according to an embodiment;

(7) FIG. 6 is a graph of radial distance (nm) vs. number density, which shows a result of analysis of radial number density of Mito-FF, which suggests that a density of each of a phenylalanine group and TPP are high along a surface of fibrils, according to an embodiment;

(8) FIG. 7 is a graph of wavenumber vs. intensity (a.u), which shows an FT-IR spectrum of Mito-FF in an attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode, according to an embodiment;

(9) FIG. 8 is a graph of wavelength (nm) vs. intensity (a.u), which shows Mito-FF emission spectra of a monomer and an excimer, according to an embodiment;

(10) FIG. 9 shows electron micrographs that show cell internalization of Mito-FF in HeLa cells, in which the upper images are the results when performed at a temperature of 37° C., and the lower images are the results when performed at a temperature of 4° C., according to an embodiment;

(11) FIG. 10 is a schematic view that illustrates determination of mitochondrial accumulation, according to an embodiment;

(12) FIG. 11 is a graph of incubation concentration (mM) vs. mitochondrial accumulation (0), which shows mitochondrial accumulation of Mito-FF in HeLa cells, according to an embodiment;

(13) FIG. 12 shows the results of two-photon confocal analysis performed on HeLa cells treated with Mito-FF, which suggest that a density at a filter range of 420 nm to 480 nm, i.e., an excimer emission range, is higher than that at a filter range of 380 nm to 420 nm, i.e., a monomeric emission range, according to an embodiment;

(14) FIG. 13 is a schematic view that illustrates a molecular structure of Mito-FF-NBD, according to an embodiment;

(15) FIG. 14 shows electron micrographs, in which the upper images show Mito-FF co-assembly with Mito-FF-NBD inside mitochondria emitting bright green fluorescence when Mito-FF was co-incubated with Mito-FF-NBD in HeLa cells; and the lower images show that co-assembly was not achieved when Mito-FF-NBD was incubated in HeLa cells, according to an embodiment;

(16) FIG. 15 is a TEM image that shows Mito-FF fibril formation in a mitochondrion of a cell taken from a mouse, according to an embodiment;

(17) FIG. 16 shows confocal micrographs showing shrinkage of a mitochondrion treated with Mito-FF, as compared with a control group, as a result of confocal microscopic analysis, according to an embodiment;

(18) FIG. 17 shows electron micrographs that show ROS generation in mitochondria of HeLa cells measured by using Mito Sox, according to an embodiment;

(19) FIG. 18 is an electron micrograph that shows generation of significant ROS in HeLa cells incubated with Mito-FF fibrils confirmed by using DHE, according to an embodiment;

(20) FIG. 19A is a TEM image of Mito-VV incubated with HeLa cells, according to an embodiment;

(21) FIG. 19B is a TEM image of Mito-FxFx incubated with HeLa cells, according to an embodiment;

(22) FIG. 19C shows measurement results of time-lapse fluorescence emission of Mito-VV from TMRM monitored at 1 hour and 6 hours, according to an embodiment;

(23) FIG. 19D shows measurement results of time-lapse fluorescence emission of Mito-FxFx from TMRM monitored at 1 hour and 6 hours, according to an embodiment;

(24) FIG. 19E shows results of ROS generation analysis of the HeLa cells incubated with Mito-VV by using DHE, according to an embodiment;

(25) FIG. 19F shows results of ROS generation analysis of the HeLa cells incubated with Mito-FxFx by using DHE, according to an embodiment;

(26) FIG. 20A is a TEM image of Mito-GG incubated with HeLa cells, according to an embodiment;

(27) FIG. 20B shows measurement results of time-lapse fluorescence emission of Mito-GG from TMRM monitored at 1 hour and 6 hours, according to an embodiment;

(28) FIG. 20C shows results of ROS generation analysis in the HeLa cells incubated with Mito-GG by using DHE, according to an embodiment;

(29) FIG. 21 is a TEM image that shows a severely damaged mitochondrion after treatment with Mito-FF, according to an embodiment;

(30) FIG. 22 is a TEM image that shows an undamaged mitochondrion after treatment with Mito-GG, according to an embodiment;

(31) FIG. 23 shows electron micrographs that show measurement results of membrane depolarization of HeLa cells treated with TMRM and Mito-FF, measured in a time-dependent manner, according to an embodiment;

(32) FIG. 24 shows electron micrographs that show measurement results of ROS generation using DHE, as compared with a control group, according to an embodiment;

(33) FIG. 25 illustrates a molecular structure of a control peptide according to an embodiment;

(34) FIG. 26 is a graph of time vs. dye release, which shows model liposomal leakage induced by Mito-FF, according to an embodiment;

(35) FIG. 27 is a graph of time vs. dye release, which shows model liposomal leakage induced by Mito-GG, according to an embodiment;

(36) FIG. 28 shows the results of a molecular simulation and analysis of plasma membrane penetration ability of Mito-FF fibrils over time, according to an embodiment;

(37) FIG. 29 is a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows measurement results of cell viability after incubation of HEK293T cells for 24 hours, according to an embodiment;

(38) FIG. 30 is a schematic view that illustrates molecular structures of peptides bound to TPP, according to an embodiment;

(39) FIG. 31 is a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows measurement results of cell viability of the peptides bound to TPP, which suggest that the peptides have no cytotoxicity, according to an embodiment;

(40) FIG. 32 is a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows measurement results of cell viability after incubating Fxr peptide in HELa cells for 24 hours, according to an embodiment;

(41) FIG. 33A shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(42) FIG. 33B shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(43) FIG. 33C shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(44) FIG. 33D shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(45) FIG. 33E shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(46) FIG. 33F shows a graph of concentration (μM) vs. cell viability, which shows cytotoxicity of Mito-peptides against a variety of cell lines, according to an embodiment;

(47) FIG. 34 shows electron micrographs that show measurement results of cell death induced by Mito-FF by using an Annexin V/PI staining assay, which suggest that the cell death occurs by early apoptosis, according to an embodiment; and

(48) FIG. 35 shows that the early apoptosis caused by Mito-FF is confirmed by flow cytometric analysis, according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(49) Reference will now be made in detail to embodiments, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like elements throughout. In this regard, the present embodiments may have different forms and should not be construed as being limited to the descriptions set forth herein. Accordingly, the embodiments are merely described below, by referring to the figures, to explain aspects of the present description. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

(50) Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in further detail with reference to Examples. However, these Examples are for illustrative purposes only, and the present invention is not intended to be limited by these Examples.

Example 1. Synthesis and Characterization of Mito-FF

(51) Mito-FF consists of a tripeptide building block Phe-Phe-Lys (FFK), synthesized based on 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl chemistry (Fmoc) via the standard solid phase synthesis (SSPS) as follows.

(52) The Mito-FF was synthesized by the standard 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl solid-phase peptide synthesis on a 0.25 mmol scale. The synthesized peptide was treated with 1-pyrene carboxylic acid (500 μmol) and O-(Benzotriazol-1-yl)-N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate (HBTU, 500 μmol) in presence of diisopropyl ethyl amine (DIPEA, 500 μmol) and allowed to stir at room temperature for 24 hours in dimethylformamide (DMF). A resin was collected by filtration and washed with DMF to remove unreacted chemicals. The product cleaved from the resin with cleavage cock tail TFA/water/tri isopropyl amine mixture (9.5:0.5:0.5) was precipitated in a cold condition. The resulting product was purified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and confirmed by mass analysis using MALDI-TOF/TOF. To achieve the triphenyl phosphonium (TPP) conjugation, synthesized peptide (0.02 mmol) was treated with 1-hexyl triphenylphosphonium bromide salt (0.04 mmol) with tri ethyl amine (0.02 mmol) in DMF, and allowed to stir for 12 hours at room temperature. The pure product was purified using HPLC, freeze dried, and then stored.

(53) FIG. 1 is a schematic representation for the foregoing synthesis process.

(54) As shown in FIG. 2, an N-terminus of the synthesized Mito-FF is conjugated with pyrene (butyric acid) to enable fluorescent detection, and an amine group of a side chain of lysine is conjugated with TPP for targeting mitochondria. The pyrene moiety in Mito-FF not only serves as a fluorophore but also increases the self-assembling propensity by enhancing the hydrophobicity and pi-pi interactions.

(55) As shown in FIG. 3, it was found that Mito-FF was self-assembled into nanofibers with an average length of 500 nm and an average width of 10 nm for individual fibers, in both saline phosphate buffers (10 millimolar (mM), PBS) and water with a left handed helicity, as observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM-1400 available from JEOL).

(56) Intracellular self-assembly of molecules requires a significantly high intracellular concentration of the molecules, as compared with a critical aggregation concentration (CAC). In order to verify whether intracellular self-assembly of the Mito-FF according to the present disclosure can occur or not, the CAC of the Mito-FF was measured as follows.

(57) Intensities of emission at 344 nanometers (nm) and 339 nm in a pyrene excitation spectrum differ according to whether pyrene molecules are present as unaggregated individual molecules or as aggregated molecules. The intensities at 344 nm and 339 nm in the excitation spectrum were measured, and the ratio of an intensity in the excitation spectrum at 344 nm to an intensity in the excitation spectrum at 339 nm was calculated. Based on the standard curve shown in FIG. 4, the CAC for Mito-FF was determined.

(58) As a result, as shown in FIG. 4, the CAC for Mito-FF was 60 micromolar (0).

(59) In consideration of the result of the CAC, in the case that an intracellular concentration of the Mito-FF of the present disclosure is 60 μM or greater, self-assembly of Mito-FF may occur.

(60) To get insight about the self-assembling mechanism of Mito-FF, a molecular simulation was conducted in which Mito-FF was self-assembled via coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMS), where radius and length was 2.5 nm and 22 nm respectively. The molecular simulation was performed using Material Studio program available from Accelrys Inc., following the protocol of the manufacturer. The molecular simulation was performed between 2 microseconds (μs) and 1.56 μs, and the analysis thereof was converted to a final frame of 50 nanoseconds (ns).

(61) As a result, Mito-FF self-assembled to form helical fiber as shown in right side of FIG. 5. In the self-assembly of Mito-FF, pyrene and phenyl alanine group (Phe) stacked along the fiber with a proximal pyrene-pyrene and Phe-Phe distance of 0.5 nm.

(62) As shown in FIG. 6, the radial number density analysis showed that the number density of TPP is highest along the surface of the fiber which is then followed by pyrene.

(63) Based on the above result, the driving force for the nanofiber formation of Mito-FF is mainly contributed by the pi-pi interactions among phenylalanine groups as well as pyrene moieties followed by the hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbones.

(64) As shown in FIG. 7, FT-IR analysis showed the appearance of amide I peak near 1,637 cm.sup.−1, indicating the presence of beta sheet structure. Furthermore the peak near 1,675 cm.sup.−1 confirms the presence of the antiparallel beta conformation of Mito-FF fibrils.

(65) In order to analyze aggregation of Mito-FF by fluorimetric analysis, fluorescence in PBS and MeOH was observed. When pyrene molecules are present as individual molecules, pale blue emission at a wavelength of 400 nm is observed. When pyrene molecules are present as aggregated molecules, a complex is formed in an excited state, and thus sky blue emission at a wavelength of 450 nm is observed. Thus, pyrene emission indicates whether pyrene molecules are in an aggregated state or in an unaggregated individual state.

(66) As shown in FIG. 8, the spectrofluorimetric analysis of Mito-FF exhibited an intense blue (sky blue) emission at 450 nm in PBS (or water). Accordingly, it was found that Mito-FF forms a pyrene complex (aggregation of Mito-FF), and such fluorescent emission is distinguishable with naked eye under UV lamp as sky blue emission. However, the emission reduced to a pale blue color in MeOH, indicating that pyrene existed in an unaggregated state.

Example 2. Mitochondrial Co-Localization and Mode of Cellular Entry

(67) The presence of TPP conjugated with the Mito-FF of the present disclosure triggers the cellular uptake of the Mito-FF to carcinoma and permeation thereof into mitochondria due to its high negative inner membrane potential.

(68) Mitochondria has a feature of a porous outer membrane and a protein rich inner membrane, which are designed for the tight regulation of its metabolism. These features make the most of the foreign substance failed to enter inside the mitochondria by penetrating its charged membrane. In order to traverse across the membrane, the molecules are required to overcome the activation energy associated with the removal of accompanied water molecules. The molecules with delocalized positive charge are found to lower this activation energy to well penetrate the membrane and enter inside the mitochondria efficiently. The delocalized positive charge over the three phenyl groups, which is stabilized by resonance, facilitates the mitochondrial entry of TPP conjugated molecules.

(69) The process of mitochondrial entry is mainly driven by highly negative inner membrane potential of about −220 mV for carcinoma cells. To confirm the mitochondrial co localization, 20 μm of Mito-FF was incubated with human epithelial carcinoma (HeLa) cells for 1 hour at 37° C., and mitotracker (MitoSOX) red was incubated before 20 minutes of the measurement.

(70) The results of the analysis using confocal microscopy (LSM-780 available from Zeiss) are shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 9 shows that an overlap between the red fluorescence of the mitotracker (MitoSOX) and blue fluorescence of Mito-FF, which confirms the effective localization in the mitochondria. Moreover, the fluorescence from the lyso-tracker does not exhibit any overlap with the fluorescence from the Mito-FF, implying that colocalization is specific for the mitochondria.

(71) The cellular uptake analysis at 4° C. showed similar observation, suggesting that the peptide enters via an energy independent pathway. This denote that the Mito-FF diffuse through the plasma membrane and readily uptaken by the cells, which is an additional advantage for the small molecule-based drugs, while the assembled structure or high molecular weight molecules generally enter inside the cells via complex energy required mechanism such as endocytosis.

Example 3. Intra-Mitochondrial Assembly

(72) Since the process of self-assembly is entirely driven by a molecular concentration, it is critical to examine the concentration of Mito-FF inside mitochondria. The local concentration of Mito-FF in the mitochondria was measured by using concentration-dependent emission spectra of Mito-FF. The measurement of the concentration of the Mito-FF in the mitochondria was measured as follows. The schematic diagram for the measurement procedure is shown in FIG. 10.

(73) The Mito-FF was incubated with HeLa cells for 3 hours, and the cellular uptake was examined after complete lysis of the cells. Subsequently, the emission spectra was examined, and comparison with the calibration plot of Mito-FF under similar condition was performed. The confocal imaging analysis with Mito-FF showed that the Mito-FF localizes inside the mitochondria, which implies that the Mito-FF obtained with the cell lysate is entirely from mitochondria.

(74) As shown in FIG. 11, the self-assembly of Mito-FF inside a mitochondrion may readily occur because of a concentration of Mito-FF of several mM inside the mitochondrion, which may be significantly higher than the CAC.

(75) In order to get further evidence for the mitochondrial assembly, a two-photon confocal analysis was performed on HeLa cells after incubation with Mito-FF.

(76) The two photons have approximately half of the energy (and double the wavelength) of the photon required for a single photon excitation quantum event to occur. Since the maximum pyrene excitation wavelength is around 343 nm, the excitation wavelength was set at 780 nm, and the emission from the HeLa cells after treatment with Mito-FF was analyzed.

(77) Pyrene is a molecular probe that has been employed for deep study of several biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and bio membranes, due to its unique spectroscopic and photophysical properties. Pyrene has been widely used to exploit information about protein structure, molecular organization, and conformation. Due to this property of pyrene that allows pyrene to serve as an indicator of self-assembly inside mitochondria, Mito-FF was conjugated with pyrene.

(78) A notable feature for pyrene fluorescent emission employed for biomolecule conformational analysis is appearance of an unstructured band at longer wavelengths in a range of 420 nm to 480 nm, when two pyrenes are separated by a distance of at least 10 A ° from each other.

(79) As shown in FIG. 12, as a result of the two-photon confocal analysis, the CGMS molecular simulation of Mito-FF showed that during the assembly of Mito-FF, two pyrenes oriented toward each other with a proximity of 0.5 nm. Thus, in light of the bright emission at 420 nm, it was found that an excited state dimer was formed upon excitation.

(80) The blue emission observed during the confocal analysis of HeLa cells treated with Mito-FF as shown in FIG. 9 may belong to the excimeric pyrene, since the wavelength was about 410 nm. For the statistical evaluation of the ratio of excimeric emission to monomeric emission from the HeLa cells treated with Mito-FF, two-photon confocal microscopic analyses were performed, which in turn provided an insight about assembly as well as local concentration of Mito-FF inside mitochondria.

(81) To further support the assembly of Mito-FF inside mitochondria, another peptide has been synthesized, that is, Mito-FF-NBD. As shown in FIG. 13, pyrene is replaced with another environment sensitive dye; 4-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD).

(82) The NBD dye is a fluorophore known to produce more intense fluorescence in a hydrophobic environment than in a hydrophilic environment, and has been used in imaging studies of biological components. Due to this property, the NBD dye may be used in examining formation of fibers inside a cell.

(83) In order to confirm fibrous assembly inside mitochondria, Mito-FF and Mito-FF-NBD were co-incubated with HeLa cells for 3 hours, followed by observation using confocal microscopy as in Example 2.

(84) As a result, as shown in FIG. 14, in the case of co-incubation of Mito-FF and Mito-FF-NBD, bright emission was observed. However, such bright emission was absent with Mito-FF-NBD alone.

(85) This result shows that Mito-FF-NBD co-assembles with Mito-FF fibrils in which NBD may essentially be exposed towards a hydrophobic environment which results in bright fluorescence. However in the absence of Mito-FF, Mito-FF-NBD does not form fibrils, which consequently fails to result in fluorescence.

(86) For solid proof of mitochondrial assembly, a mitochondrion was isolated from HeLa cells according to a known protocol. 100 μg of mitochondria were co-incubated with 10 μM of Mito-FF at a temperature of 37° C. In a control group, 100 μg of mitochondria was incubated without Mito-FF at a temperature of 37° C. Subsequently, the mitochondria were observed by using TEM as in Example 1.

(87) As a result, as shown in FIG. 15, the TEM image shows that fibrils were formed inside the mitochondrion.

(88) The TEM image shown in FIG. 15 shows not only the Mito-FF fibrils formed inside but also the mitochondrial membrane including cristae destroyed by the fibrils, as compared with the control group which appeared to have spherical morphology with well-defined cristae. This result indicates that the fibrils may induce significant dysfunction of mitochondrial metabolism and eventually damage the whole cell.

Example 4. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Caused by Mito-FF Fibrils and Cancer Cell-Specific Cytotoxicity

(89) As shown in FIG. 16, a confocal image of a mitochondrion of a HeLa cell after treatment with Mito-FF shows that mitochondrion morphology was severely deformed and damaged, as compared with a control group.

(90) To confirm the mitochondrial dysfunction by the treatment with Mito-FF, the ability of Mito-FF to induce mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization was investigated with tetramethyl rhodamine dye (TMRM) which shows bright fluorescence under normal conditions and vanishes in accordance with the depolarization of the membrane. Under normal conditions, the inner membrane of mitochondria is in an electrochemically polarized state with a higher concentration of H.sup.+ in the inner membrane space. The electrochemical gradient across the membrane causes H.sup.+ to flow to the inner membrane of mitochondria and this process is coupled with production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The external materials which may uncouple this process cause the flow of H.sup.+ to be independent of ATP production. This condition is referred as mitochondrial depolarization, which serves as a preliminary indication of mitochondrial dysfunction.

(91) To examine the effect of Mito-FF on the mitochondrial membrane potential, HeLa cells were incubated with TMRM and Mito-FF. The fluorescence emission from the TMRM was monitored at times lapses of 1 hour, 3 hours, and 6 hours. Red fluorescence of TMRM appears when a mitochondrial membrane is completely polarized, whereas depolarization of a mitochondrial membrane causes disappearance of TMRM red fluorescence. The Mito-FF treated with TMRM, showed significant red fluorescence after 1 hour of incubation, which started diminishing after 3 hours and completely vanished within 6 hours. The results thereof are shown in FIG. 23. This observation indicates that formation of Mito-FF fibrils depolarizes a mitochondrion, and adversely affects function thereof.

(92) The mitochondrial dysfunction may result in excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). To confirm the oxidative stress induced by Mito-FF, generation of ROS within mitochondria was monitored using Mito SOX Red. Mito SOX Red is a fluorogenic dye which selectively and rapidly accumulates in mitochondria, is oxidized by superoxide, and exhibits red fluorescence.

(93) As shown in FIG. 17, the red fluorescence, which appeared from Mito SOX Red after 6 hours of incubation of Mito-FF with HeLa cells, implies that the ROS was generated inside the mitochondria.

(94) The mitochondrial stress may eventually lead to the whole-cell stress. To confirm this expectation, the ROS generation analysis within the cell was performed using dihydroethidium (DHE) dye. DHE dye may intercalate with nuclear DNA and oxidizes to ethidium in the presence of ROS, which may show red fluorescence.

(95) As shown in FIG. 18, in consideration of red fluorescence of DHE within the whole cell, it was found that significant ROS was generated in the HeLa cells incubated with Mito-FF fibrils upon treatment with Mito-FF.

(96) Phenylalanine is well known to be important for the acceleration of the amyloid assembly process in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other amyloid diseases by formation of toxic fibril aggregates. To investigate whether mitochondrial damage caused by fibril formation is specific for phenylalanine fibrils, the molecular design used in the experiment was extended to Mito-VV and Mito-FxFx, where the phenylalanine is replaced by valine and cyclohexylalanine, respectively, as shown in FIG. 25.

(97) TEM images of Mito-VV and Mito-FxFx were obtained by observation in the same manner as in Example 3. Then, in the same manner as described above, the time-lapse fluorescence emission from the TMRM was monitored at 1 hour and 6 hours, and the ROS generation analysis within the cell was performed using DHE dye.

(98) As a result, as shown in FIG. 19, when HeLa cells treated with Mito-VV and Mito-FxFx, red fluorescence of TMRM disappeared within 6 hours, followed by the ROS generation as evidenced by the Mito Sox and DHE. Accordingly, it was found that mitochondrial damage caused by fibril formation is not specific for phenylalanine fibrils.

(99) In order to verify the result in another manner, Mito-GG, in which phenylalanine is replaced with glycine, was prepared. In the same manner as in Example 1, it was found that Mito-GG has a CAC of 114 μM or greater, by using a pyrene excitation spectrum, and showed a micellar-like structure of size below 50 nm, which was measured by using electron microscopy.

(100) As shown in FIG. 20, as a result of an experiment on Mito-GG, performed in the same manner as in experiments on Mito-VV and Mito-FxFx, when Mito-GG was incubated with HeLa cells, the red fluorescence of TMRM did not disappear even after 6 hours of incubation with HeLa cells, unlike other fibril aggregates. In addition, little ROS was generated.

(101) Accordingly, in the case that small micelles are formed like Mito-GG, the mitochondrial stress induced by the small micelles might be low, as compared with Mito-VV and Mito-FxFx. Thus, in this case, it is less likely to cause mitochondrial dysfunction.

(102) To visualize the mitochondrial dysfunction induced by Mito-FF, a TEM image analysis was conducted with HeLa cells treated with Mito-FF of a concentration of 20 μM for 3 hours in the same manner as in Example 3.

(103) As a result, as shown in FIG. 21, most of the mitochondrion was severely damaged after treatment with Mito-FF. In the TEM image to the right side of FIG. 21, it is clearly shown that fibrils were formed inside the mitochondrion, the fibrils penetrating outwards through the mitochondrial membrane.

(104) Accordingly, it was found that the fibril formation inside the mitochondrion induced the disruption of the mitochondrial membrane and thereby entirely damaged the organelle.

(105) However, as shown in FIG. 22, the mitochondrion of the HeLa cells treated with Mito-GG remained unaffected under similar conditions, as shown in the TEM image.

(106) After the confirmation of the intra-mitochondrial assembly of peptide amphiphile, the toxicity of Mito-peptides toward a variety of cells was analyzed, the cells including cancer cell lines such as HeLa (ATCC, cervical cancer), MDA-MB-486 (ATCC) (mammary cancer) MCF10 (breast cancer), PC3 (ATCC, prostate cancer), SCC7 (ATCC, skin cancer), HEK293T (ATCC), and NIH-3T3 (ATCC).

(107) In order to analyze cell cytotoxicity, the cancer cells were incubated in an incubator including a DMEM medium (available from Gibco) containing 10% of FBS, 1% of penicillin/streptomycin (available from Life Technologies) at a temperature of 37° C. Cell viability thereof was measured 24 hours after cell incubation, by following the protocol of the manufacturer of Alamar Blue assay (available from Thermo Fisher Scientific).

(108) As a result of the experiment, as shown in FIG. 33, Mito-FF, Mito-FxFx, and Mito-VV peptides each had an IC.sub.50 of 10 μM; however, Mito-GG had a significantly low IC.sub.50, as compared with the other peptides. Accordingly, it was found that Mito-GG has low cell cytotoxicity, as compared with the other peptides.

(109) Multidrug resistance, the principal mechanism by which many cancers develop resistance to chemotherapy drugs, is a major factor in the failure of many forms of chemotherapy. This resistance exists against every effective anticancer drug and may develop by numerous mechanisms including decreased drug uptake, increased drug efflux, activation of detoxifying systems, activation of DNA repair mechanisms, and evasion of drug-induced apoptosis, etc.

(110) According to FIG. 23, which shows TMRM after the treatment with Mito-FF with respect to time, and FIG. 24, which shows ROS generation, in the case that a drug resistance cell line (MCF7/ADR cell) was treated with Mito-peptides, cell cytotoxicity against the cells was significant.

(111) A cell requires some time to have enough accumulation inside mitochondria for fiber formation, but once fiber is formed inside the mitochondria, the cell starts malfunctioning and finally apoptosis is induced.

(112) In order to confirm whether apoptosis occurs or not by treatment with Mito-peptides, the cell viability of HEK 293T normal cell lines treated with Mito-FF, Mito-FxFx, Mito-VV, or Mito-GG was measured in the same manner as described above.

(113) As a result, as shown in FIG. 29, the Mito-peptides showed only a 20% reduction in the cell viability in HEK 293T normal cell lines treated with Mito-peptides. The non-toxicity against normal cell lines is in accordance with the reduced accumulation of Mito-FF inside HEK 293T mitochondria, in which the membrane potential is less negative than that of carcinoma cells.

(114) Accordingly, since penetration of Mito-peptides into normal cells is relatively smaller than that into carcinoma cells, it was found that the Mito-peptides had no toxicity against normal cells even after 24 hours of treatment.

(115) TPP molecules are rapidly and extensively taken in by mitochondria and have been found to have a toxic effect on mitochondrial function. In order to see whether the number of TPP molecules has an impact on the toxicity, a phenylalanine dipeptide was synthesized, the phenylalanine dipeptide being conjugated with one TPP molecule (on the left side) and two TPP molecules (on the right side).

(116) All peptides formed micellar morphology with a size of 50 nm or less. As shown in FIG. 31, similar to the results of the foregoing experiment, both the phenylalanine dipeptide conjugated with one TPP molecule and the phenylalanine dipeptide conjugated with two TPP molecules did not induce any toxicity against cancer cell lines.

(117) To further support this result, another peptide was formed. The formed peptide was Fxr (having a sequence of pyrene-FFKFxrFxr), which was conjugated with no TPP molecules. However, this peptide formed a fibril structure. Due to its high positive charge, the peptide localized inside the mitochondria. As shown in FIG. 32, the toxicity analysis in HeLa cells showed significant toxicity.

(118) Mitochondria play a vital role in the initiation of an intrinsic apoptosis cascade. It was anticipated that a Mito-peptide localized in a mitochondrion may self-assemble, thereby causing stress in the mitochondrion and inducing apoptotic mechanisms. To confirm this prediction experimentally, FITC annexin/PI staining assay was performed.

(119) For the FIIC annexin/PI staining assay, HeLa cells were incubated in an incubator including a DMEM medium (available from Gibco) containing 10% of FBS and 1% of penicillin/streptomycin (available from Life Technologies) at a temperature of 37° C. 10 μM of each peptide was incubated for 1, 4, 6, 8, or 10 hours. Following the protocol of the manufacturer, the cells were incubated for 15 minutes at room temperature in the presence of 100 μL of annexin-binding buffer solution, 5 μL of Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated annexin V (V13241 available from Life Technologies), and 1 μL of a 100 μg/mL PI working solution. After the incubation, the stained cells were observed with a confocal microscopy as in Example 2.

(120) As a result, as shown in FIG. 34, Annexin V was able to stain the plasma membrane of HeLa cells treated with Mito-FF, but PI was not. The membrane-impermeable PI may be used in distinguishing live or early apoptotic cells from late apoptotic or necrotic cells that lose membrane integrity. Annexin V stains both apoptotic cells which expose phosphatidylserine extracellularly and necrotic cells which lose membrane integrity, but PI does not. The live cells exclude both of the dyes from staining, whereas the necrotic cells allow staining by both of the dyes. The results of this experiment shown in FIG. 34 shows that the cells entered an early apoptotic stage within 6 hours of treatment with Mito-FF.

(121) For the quantitative analysis of apoptosis, flow cytometric analysis (FACS) was conducted over time with FI-TC annexin V/PI staining assay by using FACSCalibur (available from BD Bioscience), following the protocol of the manufacturer.

(122) In detail, HeLa cells treated with 10 μM of Mito-FF were incubated for 4 hours or 8 hours. Then, FACS analysis was performed thereon.

(123) As a result, as shown in FIG. 35, about 81.2% of the total population of the cells entered an early apoptotic stage within 2 hours, and a late apoptotic stage started after 10 hours.

Example 5. Cell Death Mechanism Induced by Mito-FF

(124) Cell death induced by Mito-FF fibrils may arise from the synergism between two different mechanisms: (1) loss of mitochondrial membrane integrity and (2) promiscuous protein interactions.

(125) Previous reports have shown that loss of integrity of endosomal/lysosomal membrane represents an early event in the pathogenesis of Aβ in Alzheimer's disease. Similarly, fibrous assembly of Mito-FF eventually was expected to result in the loss of mitochondrion membrane integrity. This expectation was proved by TEM analysis results.

(126) A high positive charge possessed by the surface of Mito-FF fibers may promote their interaction with negatively charged membranes of mitochondria, which may consequently induce toxicity. To confirm this expectation, a liposomal leakage assay was conducted.

(127) The release of a self-quenching dye such as calcine from liposome is commonly used to test integrity of lipid bilayers. Different concentrations of Mito-FF were used to test integrity of lipid bilayers. Different concentrations of Mito-FF were added to a vesicle-containing solution, and leakage of encapsulated calcein from the vesicle was monitored.

(128) As shown in FIG. 26, the addition of Mito-FF caused the leakage of calcein in a time-dependent manner, and the leakage reached 100% within 24 hours. However at a concentration below the CAC, Mito-FF did not induce any dye leakage, which suggests that liposome leakage purely arises from interaction of fiber with liposome and not with molecules.

(129) However, as shown in FIG. 27, Mito-GG, which forms micelles, induces only 30% of dye release within 24 hours, which suggests that micelles may not provide enough interaction with a mitochondrial membrane to cause decreased dysfunction of mitochondria induced by Mito-GG or spherical morphology.

(130) To verify the mechanism that occurs after the membrane disruption with Mito-FF and Mito-GG, a molecular simulation was conducted using a Material Studio program available from Accelrys Inc., following the protocol of the manufacturer. The molecular simulation was performed between 2 μs and 1.56 μs, and the analysis thereof was converted to a final frame of 50 ns.

(131) The simulation showed that Mito-FF fibers started forming a pore within 1.14 ns.

(132) In an analysis of root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), the positions of particles were compared with reference positions over time, and the averaged fluctuated distance of each particle was shown. When Mito-FF interacted with plasma membrane, RMSF of penetration-inducing group may be larger than that of other groups.

(133) The RMSF was measured by a molecular simulation using the Material Studio program available from Accelrys Inc. The molecular simulation was performed between 2 μs and 1.56 μs, and the analysis thereof was converted to a final frame of 50 ns.

(134) Through the RMSF analysis, the interaction of Mito-FF with the plasma membrane was confirmed, and phenylalanine interacted most, followed by TPP.

(135) On the basis of these results, it was found that the phenylalanine group of Mito-FF induced fiber formation, high surface density of TPP, and also the penetration through plasma membrane. Comparison of electrostatic and intermolecular potential energy between Mito-FF and plasma membrane may show which components contributed more towards the plasma membrane penetration. Electrostatic energy came from interaction of P.sup.+ ions with plasma membrane, and intermolecular potential energy came from interaction of other groups except ions and plasma membrane. The electrostatic energy and intermolecular potential energy show an interval of penetration from 600 ns to 2000 ns. Electrostatic energy reached a stable state, but intermolecular potential energy decreased over time.

(136) As shown in FIG. 28, during penetration, intermolecular potential energy maintained an unstable state, which suggests that TPP, phenyl, and pyrene groups, which include a benzene ring, interacted more than P.sup.+ ions to penetrate the plasma membrane.

(137) However, the Mito-GG which self-assembles to form a spherical structure, showed pyrene stacking, but not in the inner side of the sphere. Radial number density shows the structure of Mito-GG. Near a surface of the sphere, backbone groups had the highest density, followed by TPP and pyrene groups. Different from fiber structure, due to backbone groups surrounding the overall sphere, the surface density of benzene rings was lower than Mito-FF, which resulted in reduced membrane penetration of Mito-GG or spherical micelles.

(138) As apparent from the foregoing description, a pharmaceutical composition for preventing or treating cancer may include a conjugate or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the conjugate may include a mitochondria-targeting moiety and a peptide represented by (Xaa).sub.n-Lys, the mitochondria-targeting moiety may be bound to the lysine (Lys), Xaa represents an amino acid, n indicates the number of Xaa bound via a peptide bond, n may be an integer from about 2 to about 200, Xaa may be selected from the group consisting of valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, asparagine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, glycine, alanine, serine, threonine, cysteine, proline, glutamine, histidine, lysine, arginine, tyrosine, tryptophan, and a variant bound to a C.sub.3-C.sub.10 cycloalkyl group, the amino acid may form a beta-sheet secondary structure between at least two amino acids, and the peptide may include the beta-sheet secondary structure. The pharmaceutical composition may be applicable to prevention or treatment of cancer.

(139) It should be understood that embodiments described herein should be considered in a descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. Descriptions of features or aspects within each embodiment should typically be considered as available for other similar features or aspects in other embodiments.

(140) While one or more embodiments have been described with reference to the figures, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the following claims.