TiO2 nanofiltration membranes prepared by molecular layer deposition for water purification

Abstract

Methods are provided for preparing TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes for water purification are provided. The method can include supplying a titanium precursor gas into a reaction chamber, where the titanium precursor gas reacts with a base support of an anodic aluminum oxide, and the base support of an anodic aluminum oxide has a surface defining a plurality of pores therein. The reaction chamber can then be evacuated to remove any unreacted titanium precursor gas, and an alkoxide precursor gas can be supplied into a reaction chamber such that the alkoxide precursor gas reacts to with the titanium on the base support to form a hybrid titanium alkoxide. Thereafter, the base support cab be heated to remove the organic component to leave titanium oxide on the surface of the base support.

Claims

1. A method to prepare TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes for water purification via a molecular layer deposition cycle, the method comprising: supplying a titanium precursor gas into a reaction chamber that is under a vacuum, wherein the titanium precursor gas is introduced into the reaction chamber until a vapor pressure ranging from about 10 Pa to about 30 Pa is achieved, wherein the titanium precursor gas reacts with a base support of an anodic aluminum oxide, and wherein the base support of an anodic aluminum oxide has a surface defining a plurality of pores therein; evacuating the reaction chamber to remove unreacted titanium precursor gas; supplying an alkoxide precursor gas into a reaction chamber, wherein the alkoxide precursor gas is introduced into the reaction chamber until a vapor pressure ranging from about 3 Pa to about 20 Pa is achieved, wherein the alkoxide precursor gas reacts to with the titanium on the base support to form a hybrid titanium alkoxide; repeating the steps of supplying the titanium precursor gas, evacuating the reaction chamber, and supplying the alkoxide precursor gas multiple times until the pores of the base support are filled with the hybrid titanium alkoxide; and thereafter, heating the base support to a temperature ranging from about 200° C. to about 250° C. to remove the organic component to leave a titanium oxide coating on the surface of the base support, wherein the titanium oxide coating is porous, wherein the titanium oxide pores have a pore size distribution ranging from about 0.6 nanometers to about 1.4 nanometers.

2. The method as in claim 1, wherein the titanium precursor gas is titanium tetrachloride.

3. The method as in claim 1, wherein the alkoxide precursor gas is ethylene glycol.

4. The method as in claim 1, wherein the plurality of pores defined by surface of the base support of the anodic aluminum oxide has an average diameter of about 10 nm to about 50 nm.

5. The method as in claim 1, wherein the plurality of pores defined by surface of the base support of the anodic aluminum oxide has an average diameter of about 15 nm to about 30 nm.

6. The method as in claim 1, wherein the base support has a temperature of about 50° C. to about 150° C. in the reaction chamber throughout the repeated steps.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) A full and enabling disclosure of the present invention, including the best mode thereof to one skilled in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, which includes reference to the accompanying figures.

(2) FIG. 1a is a schematic illustration of MLD surface reactions for titanium alkoxide coating growth using TiCl.sub.4 and EG as precursors.

(3) FIG. 1b is a step-by-step procedure to prepare the TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes using an AAO support by MLD and subsequent calcination to open pores.

(4) FIG. 2a shows a FESEM image of the top-surface of AAO support. All MLD coatings have been calcined at 250° C. in air, according to the Examples.

(5) FIG. 2b shows a FESEM image of the top-surface of AAO support, AAO-40TiO.sub.2 membrane. All MLD coatings have been calcined at 250° C. in air, according to the Examples.

(6) FIG. 2c shows a FESEM image of the top-surface of AAO support, AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane. All MLD coatings have been calcined at 250° C. in air, according to the Examples.

(7) FIG. 2d shows a FESEM image of the cross-section of a AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane. All MLD coatings have been calcined at 250° C. in air, according to the Examples.

(8) FIG. 3a shows the XPS spectra (Al 2p) of AAO and AAO-60TiO.sub.2 (after calcination), according to the Examples.

(9) FIG. 3b shows the XPS spectra (Ti 2p) of AAO and AAO-60TiO.sub.2 (after calcination), according to the Examples.

(10) FIG. 4 shows XRD patterns of double sided tapes (a), AAO support (b), and the AAO-60TiO2 membrane (c), according to the Examples.

(11) FIG. 5 shows a chart of the pore size distribution of the AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane, according to the Examples.

(12) FIG. 6 shows a chart of the single gas permeation through the tubular α-Al.sub.2O.sub.3 support with 30 cycles of MLD after calcination at different temperatures in air, according to the Examples.

(13) FIG. 7 shows a comparison of the pure water permeation through AAO with different cycles of MLD coatings before and after calcination at 250° C., according to the Examples.

(14) FIGS. 8a and 8b show the rejection of MB by TiO.sub.2 coated AAO membranes, according to the Examples.

(15) FIG. 9 shows the salt rejection by TiO.sub.2 coated AAO membranes, according to the Examples.

DEFINITIONS

(16) Chemical elements are discussed in the present disclosure using their common chemical abbreviation, such as commonly found on a periodic table of elements. For example, hydrogen is represented by its common chemical abbreviation H; helium is represented by its common chemical abbreviation He; and so forth.

(17) As used herein, the prefix “nano” refers to the nanometer scale up to about 100 nm. For example, particles having an average diameter on the nanometer scale (e.g., from about 0.1 nm to about 100 nm) are referred to as “nanoparticles.”

(18) The term “organic” is used herein to refer to a class of chemical compounds that are comprised of carbon atoms. For example, an “organic polymer” is a polymer that includes carbon atoms in the polymer backbone, but may also include other atoms either in the polymer backbone and/or in side chains extending from the polymer backbone (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(19) Reference now will be made to the embodiments of the invention, one or more examples of which are set forth below. Each example is provided by way of an explanation of the invention, not as a limitation of the invention. In fact, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the invention without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. For instance, features illustrated or described as one embodiment can be used on another embodiment to yield still a further embodiment. Thus, it is intended that the present invention cover such modifications and variations as come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the present discussion is a description of exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended as limiting the broader aspects of the present invention, which broader aspects are embodied exemplary constructions.

(20) Molecular layer deposition (MLD) technique has been used to deposit ultra-thin coatings for metal catalysts stabilization, highly selective catalysts, and size-selective adsorption. MLD growth has been demonstrated for a variety of organic-inorganic hybrid films, such as alucone, zinc alkoxide, titanium alkoxide, and zirconium alkoxide by using suitable precursors. In MLD, two self-limiting surface reactions are conducted alternatively to deposit coatings on a substrate. During each surface reaction, precursor molecules react with surface reactive groups, such as —OH, and chemically bond a layer of precursor molecules on the surface; new reactive sites/functional groups on the linked precursor molecules will be utilized for further layer growth. FIG. 1a illustrates two surface reactions in one cycle of MLD using TiCl.sub.4 and ethylene glycol (EG) as precursors to deposit titanium alkoxide coatings. The self-limiting nature of the surface reactions of MLD offers advantages, such as exquisite control over coating thickness at sub-nanometer level, conformal pinhole-free coatings on high aspect ratio structures, and scale-up capability.

(21) Here, a method is generally provided for using MLD to fabricate TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes with excellent control of coating quality, thickness and nanometer-sized membrane pores, and their potential for water purification. Through the presently provided methods, MLD can become a new method for preparing ceramic nanofiltration membranes with well controlled thickness, composition and membrane pore sizes in a scalable way.

(22) Referring to FIGS. 1a and 1b, a method is sequentially shown for preparing a TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membrane for water purification. FIG. 1a shows the chemical reaction for a single MLD cycle of (1) supplying a titanium precursor gas to react with hydroxyl groups or oxygen groups on the aluminum oxide surface of the base substrate, (2) evacuating the reaction chamber to remove any unreacted titanium precursor gas, and (3) supplying an alkoxide precursor gas into a reaction chamber such that the alkoxide precursor gas reacts to with the titanium on the base support to form a hybrid titanium alkoxide. FIG. 1b shows that multiple MLD cycles can be used to completely fill the pores within the base substrate with the hybrid titanium alkoxide. Finally, the organic material can be removed from the hybrid titanium alkoxide, through heating, to leave a TiO.sub.2 membrane within and/or on the pores of the base substrate. Each of these steps is discussed in greater detail below.

(23) The base substrate is generally formed from an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) that defines a plurality of pores in its surface. The pores generally have an average diameter (i.e., average pore size) on the nanoscale, such as about 5 nm to about 100 nm (e.g., about 10 nm to about 50 nm, such as about 15 nm to about 30 nm). Nanoporous Anodic Aluminum Oxide or AAO (also known as Porous Aluminum Oxide (PAO) or NanoPorous Alumina Membranes (NPAM)) is a self-organized material with honeycomb-like structure formed by high density arrays of uniform and parallel nanopores. AAO is formed by electrochemical oxidation (anodization) of aluminum in the conditions that balance the growth and the localized dissolution of aluminum oxide. In the absence of such dissolution, dense anodic alumina films are formed with limited thickness. The diameter of the nanopores can be controlled with great precision from as low as 5 nanometers to as high as several hundred nanometers, with pore length from few tens of nanometers to few hundred micrometers.

(24) The base substrate formed from the nanoporous AAO, in particular embodiments, is cleaned by outgassing within a reaction chamber to remove any gases trapped within the pores. For example, the base substrate may be heated to a temperature over 150° C. (e.g., about 150° C. to about 300° C.) under vacuum.

(25) The following deposition cycle is performed within a reaction chamber at controlled pressure and temperature. For example, in one embodiment, the base substrate can be kept at a substantially constant temperature during the reaction process. The reaction temperature can be, in one embodiment, from about 50° C. to about 200° C. (e.g., about 100° C.).

(26) A titanium precursor gas can then be introduced gradually into the reactor chamber until the desired vapor pressure is achieved (e.g., about 10 Pa to about 30 Pa). The titanium precursor gas can then be allowed to react with the surface of the base substrate such that titanium oxide bonds are formed thereon. Referring to FIG. 1a, the titanium precursor gas is shown to be titanium tetrachloride which reacts with hydroxyl groups on the surface of the base substrate to form titanium-oxygen bonds and producing a byproduct of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl). Other titanium precursor gases can be utilized.

(27) Following reaction of the titanium to the surface, the reaction chamber can be purged and/or evacuated to remove any unreacted titanium precursor gas. For example, an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen, argon, etc.) can be utilized to purge the reactor, followed by forming a vacuum therein.

(28) An alkoxide precursor gas can then be introduced into the reaction chamber until the desired vapor pressure is achieved (e.g., about 3 Pa to about 20 Pa). The alkoxide precursor gas is allowed to react with the titanium bonded to the surface to form a hybrid titanium alkoxide. Referring to FIG. 1a, ethylene glycol is reacted with the exposed titanium chloride bonds on the surface of the substrate. Upon reaction, the ethylene glycol replaces the chlorine atom bonded to the titanium to generate a byproduct of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl).

(29) A MLD cycle is formed from fixed sequential steps of (1) exposing the substrate to the titanium precursor gas, (2) purging the reaction chamber, and (3) exposing the substrate to the alkoxide precursor gas. This MLD cycle can be repeated to control the level of deposition of the titanium oxide on the substrate. For example, FIG. 1b shows a substrate formed of an AAO support defining a plurality of pores therein. A first MLD cycle partially fills the pores with the hybrid titanium alkoxide material bonded thereon and therein. Additional MLD cycles completely fill the pores with the hybrid titanium alkoxide material.

(30) Finally, after the hybrid titanium alkoxide material is formed on the base substrate, the organic compound can be removed from the hybrid titanium alkoxide material through heating (e.g., a calcination-like process). For example, the hybrid titanium alkoxide material can be gradually heated to about 200° C. or higher (e.g., about 250° C. or higher, such as about 250° C. to about 350° C.), kept at that heated temperature, and then gradually cooled back to room temperature. This heating process can be achieved in air, in an inert atmosphere, or under vacuum.

EXAMPLES

(31) In this study, molecular layer deposition (MLD) was used as a novel and highly controllable method to prepare TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes with approximately 1 nm pores for water purification. The number of deposition cycles and precursors (TiCl.sub.4 and ethylene glycol) were used to control membrane quality and final pore sizes, respectively. Optimized TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes had a pure water flux as high as ˜48 L m.sup.−2.Math.h.sup.−1.Math.bar.sup.−1 and exhibited a rejection of 96% for Methylene blue. Salt rejection measurements showed moderate rejection (˜28% and ˜32%) of NaCl and NaSO.sub.4, and high rejection (˜64%) of CaSO.sub.4.MLD, as a new ceramic nanofiltration membrane preparation technique, has great potential to realize excellent control of membrane composition, thickness and potentially pore sizes in a scalable way.

(32) TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes were prepared for the first time by using a novel technique. Influence of cycles of MLD on hybrid coating quality and effect of calcination temperature on pore opening were investigated. Our results showed a defect-free, dense titanium alkoxide MLD coating can be formed after complete support pore filling, and approximately 1 nm pores can be effectively generated by calcination at 250° C. in air. The AAO-60 TiO2 membrane showed a high pure water flux of 48 L/(m2.Math.h.Math.bar) and high rejection for MB and moderate to high rejection for salts. Compared with traditional sol-gel method, MLD has the potential advantages of precise pore size control, simple fabrication process and ability to scale up.

(33) 1.1 Experimental Methods: Molecular Layer Deposition Process

(34) Titanium alkoxide MLD coatings were deposited using titanium tetrachloride (TiCl.sub.4; 99.9%, Sigma Aldrich) and ethylene glycol (C.sub.2H.sub.6O.sub.2; 99%, Alfa Aesar) as precursors. Each MLD cycle started with 240 sec vacuum. TiCl.sub.4 was then gradually introduced into the reactor as a vapor until a pressure of 20 Pa and settled for 120 sec to allow the surface reaction; 240 sec vacuum was followed to evacuate extra unreacted TiCl.sub.4. Ultrahigh purity N.sub.2 (Airgas) was used to purge the reactor at 20 sccm for 30 second to further clean the reactor. Then, 240 sec vacuum was applied to evacuate N.sub.2. The above operation was repeated except that TiCl.sub.4 was replaced by ethylene glycol at 6.7 Pa. This whole process is one titanium alkoxide MLD cycle. All MLD processes was conducted at 100° C. A home-designed, computer-controlled reaction system was used for desired cycles of MLD.

(35) 1.2 Experimental Methods: Membranes Preparation

(36) Membrane preparation procedure was shown schematically in FIG. 1b. An anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) with an average top layer pore size of 20 nm (Whatman) was used as the base support. Before MLD, AAO supports were outgassed under vacuum at 200° C. for 1 hour. Different cycles of MLD were subsequently conducted to deposit titanium alkoxide coatings in AAO support pores. After completely filling AAO pores by hybrid titanium alkoxide, microporous TiO.sub.2 membranes were formed by removing the organic compound in the dense hybrid coatings upon calcination in air at elevated temperatures for 4 h with a heating and cooling rate of 1° C./min. Tubular alumina support with 8-nm pores was also used for depositing titanium alkoxide coatings by MLD. MLD modified alumina support was then used for studying temperature effect on pore opening of the hybrid coatings by measuring gas permeation.

(37) 1.3 Experimental Methods: Membranes Characterization

(38) Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, Zeiss Ultra Plus) was used to observe the morphology of AAO before and after MLD. Surface chemical composition of AAO support and TiO.sub.2 coated AAO was analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Kratos Axis Ultra DLD instrument equipped with a monochromated Al Ka x-ray source and hemispherical analyzer capable of an energy resolution of 0.5 eV). N.sub.2 adsorption isotherms at 77 K were measured using a Micromeritcs ASAP 2020 unit. Prior to adsorption measurement, samples were degassed in situ at 250° C. for 10 h. Pore size distribution was calculated using adsorption branch of the isotherms. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) measurement was carried out using a Rigaku MiniFlex II diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation (λ, =0.15418 nm). Double sided tape was applied to glue the samples to the hollowed XRD sample holder. The diffraction data was recorded for 20 angles between 5° and 50°.

(39) 1.4 Experimental Methods: Membrane Performance Tests

(40) Liquid permeation performance was evaluated using a dead end, stirred cell filtration system (Sterlitech Corp.) with 300 mL total feed volume. The feed side was connected to a high-pressure nitrogen tank to control feed pressure. An electronic scale (Ohaus, CS Series) was used to measure permeate mass. DI water was used in all permeation measurements.

(41) Aqueous solutions of Methylene blue (MB) (6.4 mg/L), NaCl (10 mM), Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 (10 mM), and CaSO.sub.4 (10 mM) were used to evaluate water purification performance of the prepared TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes. All chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, and no pH was adjusted in the prepared solutions. In each rejection test, liquid permeation was stabilized for 3 h to eliminate the adsorption effect of TiO.sub.2. Concentration of MB in the collected permeate was analyzed using a UV-vis spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 292 nm. Concentration of NaCl, Na.sub.2SO.sub.4, and CaSO.sub.4 was measured by a conductivity meter (Pour Grainger International, Lake Forest, Ill., USA).

(42) 2.1: TiO.sub.2 Nanofiltration Membrane Characterization

(43) FESEM was performed to image the surface morphology of the AAO support before and after depositing TiO.sub.2 coatings. The surface view of the AAO support exhibited a porous structure having 20-40 nm pores, as shown in FIG. 2a. After 40 cycles of MLD on AAO support (AAO-40TiO.sub.2; corresponding abbreviations for AAO with different cycles of MLD were used in the following description), the effective pore sizes of the AAO support was greatly reduced (FIG. 2b) due to the conformal TiO.sub.2 MLD coating deposited on the pore walls as well as on the surface of the support. However, at this stage, open pores were still visible, mainly because deposited MLD coating was not thick enough to completely fill the support pores. Besides, there was a pore size distribution of the AAO support, and thus some large pores were only partially filled by the MLD coating. When 60 cycles of MLD was applied, a much thicker coating was deposited to further fill the pores of the AAO support (FIG. 2c). FIG. 2d showed the cross-sectional view of the AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane. The top layer with average 20-nm pores and a thickness of approximately 200 nm, which was supported on the bottom layer with larger pores of about 100 nm, has been completely filled with the TiO.sub.2 MLD coating. Pressurized pure water permeation also confirmed that the MLD coating before calcination was dense, as discussed below. XPS was used to detect the surface elements of the AAO and the AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane. For bare AAO support, FIG. 3a showed a substantial amount of aluminum on the top surface. However, after 60 cycles of MLD, aluminum in the AAO support on the top surface can hardly been seen due to shorter excited electron mean free path than the TiO.sub.2 coating thickness. FIG. 3b confirmed that there was no Ti in the AAO support and the MLD coating was composed of titania. This is also consistent with our previous work of TiO.sub.2 MLD coated 5A zeolite composite adsorbents. FIG. 4 showed XRD spectra of AAO and AAO-60 TiO.sub.2 indicated that both AAO and AAO-60TiO.sub.2 were amorphous in structure; the broad peak near 20 of 30° matches that reported for amorphous AAO by Yang, and the broad peak in the range of 20 to 25° was attributed to amorphous TiO.sub.2 as reported by Liu. FIG. 5 showed the pore size distribution of TiO.sub.2 MLD coatings after calcination, which was centered at approximately 1 nm.

(44) 2.2: Hybrid MLD Coating Pore Opening by Calcination

(45) Effect of calcination temperature on the pore opening of the titanium alkoxide hybrid MLD coatings was studied by measuring single gas permeation. A tubular α-Al.sub.2O.sub.3 support with 8-nm pores was used for this study. 30 cycles of MLD coating was deposited on the α-Al.sub.2O.sub.3 support, and then gas permeation was measured after calcination at different temperatures. It was found that compared with bare support, N.sub.2 permeance decreased approximately 5,000 times right after 30 cycles of MLD, indicating a uniform and pinhole-free titanium alkoxide MLD coating was successfully deposited on the support. FIG. 6 showed that below 200° C., both CO.sub.2 and N.sub.2 exhibited low gas permeances in the order of 10.sup.−10 mol/(m.sup.2.Math.s.Math.Pa). When the calcination temperature increased to 250° C., a sharp increase of gas permeance was observed. This suggests that 250° C. may be an appropriate temperature to remove or at least partially remove the organic compounds and convert the hybrid MLD coatings into porous TiO.sub.2 coatings. The ideal CO.sub.2/N.sub.2 permselectivity, defined as the ratio of single gas permeances, was ˜2.6 after calcination at 250° C., whereas the corresponding permselectivity is ˜0.8 for Knudsen-type diffusion in mesopores (2-50 nm). This indicates that micropore (<2 nm) diffusion may play a dominant role in the gas transport through the porous TiO.sub.2 membrane.

(46) 2.3: Optimization of the MLD Cycles

(47) Pressurized pure water permeation was used to optimize cycles of MLD to maximize water flux while ensuring high coating quality. Pure water flux through AAO coated with different cycles of MLD was measured before and after calcination at 250° C. As shown in FIG. 7, before calcination water flux of the AAO support was ˜1520 L/m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar, and decreased to 595 and 195 L/m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar after 20 and 40 cycles of TMLD, respectively. This is due to the gradual reduction of the AAO pores by the hybrid MLD coatings deposited on the AAO pore walls. But, after 40 cycles of MLD, the AAO support pores were still not completely filled. After 60 cycles of MLD, no observable water flux was found after 24 h permeation under pressure drop of 7 bar, and the pure water flux was estimated to be lower than our detection limit, 0.1 L/(m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar). This suggests 60 cycles of MLD formed a defect-free, dense titanium alkoxide MLD coating on the AAO support. This is consistent with the SEM images of AAO-60TiO.sub.2 in FIGS. 2c and d. After calcination in air at 250° C., a pure water flux as high as ˜48 L/m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar was obtained. This is in strong contrast with the lower pure water flux of commercial polymer membranes between 1-7 L/(m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar). Further increasing MLD cycles to 80 also generated a defect-free, hybrid MLD coating with pure water flux lower than our detection limit, and after calcination pure water flux increased to ˜13 L/(m.sup.2.Math.h.Math.bar). The decreased water flux is apparently due to the thicker TiO.sub.2 coating on AAO surface and thus increased transport resistance.

(48) It is interesting to find that the pure water flux of calcined AAO-20TiO.sub.2 membrane was even higher than calcined bare AAO support, although pores of AAO are expected to become narrower after MLD coating. This may be attributed to the better stability of TiO.sub.2 at elevated temperature, whereas alumina is much easier to dehydrate after thermal treatment and thus its surface becomes less hydrophilic.

(49) 2.4: Water Purification by TiO.sub.2 Nanofiltration Membranes

(50) The water purification performance of the TiO.sub.2 nanofiltration membranes was investigated by measuring water flux and rejection for aqueous solutions of MB, NaCl, Na.sub.2SO.sub.4, and CaSO.sub.4. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, the bare AAO support had almost no rejection for MB and salts. As the MLD cycles increased, the rejection for MB and salts increased due to the narrowed pore sizes. AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane showed a high rejection (>96%) for MB after 3 h filtration; much longer time permeation only slightly decreased its rejection (˜93% after 18 h). For the salt rejection, moderate rejection for NaCl and Na.sub.2SO.sub.4, 28% and 32%, respectively, was observed, and decent rejection (˜64%) of CaSO.sub.4 was obtained, as shown in FIG. 9. The observed order of salt rejection (CaSO.sub.4>Na.sub.2SO.sub.4>NaCl) suggests steric exclusion is the dominant mechanisms. Also, the rejection of salts for our AAO-60TiO.sub.2 membrane is comparable to that of membranes with pores of 1 nm in size.

(51) These and other modifications and variations to the present invention may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention, which is more particularly set forth in the appended claims. In addition, it should be understood the aspects of the various embodiments may be interchanged both in whole or in part. Furthermore, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is by way of example only, and is not intended to limit the invention so further described in the appended claims.