Hybrid silicon-transparent conductive oxide devices

Abstract

Electrically tunable hybrid silicon-transparent conductive oxide (Si-TCO) devices, such as dual-electrode micro-ring resonators and micro-disks for large-scale on-chip wavelength division multiplexing optical interconnects.

Claims

1. An electrically tunable silicon-transparent conductive oxide device, comprising a resonator structured as a micro-ring or a micro-disk, the resonator having both a wavelength tuning electrode and a high-speed E-O modulation electrode operably coupled thereto, wherein the device comprises a MOS-type TCO/HfO.sub.2/p-Si capacitor operably connected to the resonator at a location to electrically drive the resonator.

2. The device of claim 1, comprising a voltage source electrically coupled to the wavelength tuning electrode, the voltage source configured to provide a DC bias or slow varying control signal thereto.

3. The device of claim 1, comprising a driving circuit electrically coupled to the high-speed E-O modulation electrode, the driving circuit configured to provide a driving signal to the high-speed E-O modulation electrode.

4. The device of claim 3, wherein the driving circuit is a function generator or a integrated circuit driver.

5. The device of claim 1, wherein the TCO is one or more of In.sub.2O.sub.3, ITO, Ti:In.sub.2O.sub.3, Mo:In.sub.2O.sub.3, CdO, IGZO, and AZO.

6. The device of claim 1, wherein an E-O tuning efficiency of the resonator is at least 1,000 pm/V.

7. The device of claim 1, wherein the resonator has an E-O modulation speed of at least 25 Gb/s.

8. The device of claim 1, wherein the resonator has an energy efficiency of at least 1 fJ/bit.

9. A multi-channel wavelength division multiplexer comprising a silicon bus waveguide optically coupled to a plurality of the devices of claim 1.

10. The multi-channel wavelength division multiplexer of claim 9, comprising a plurality of optical input channels optically coupled to an input of the wavelength division multiplexer, each optical input channel having a selected optical wavelength associated therewith.

11. The multi-channel wavelength division multiplexer of claim 9, wherein each one of the resonators is operably connected to a respective driving circuit, each respective driving circuit tuned to a respective one of the selected optical wavelengths of the optical input channels.

12. The multi-channel wavelength division multiplexer of claim 9, wherein the wavelength division multiplexer is disposed on a single chip.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The foregoing summary and the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments of the present invention may be further understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings, in which:

(2) FIG. 1A schematically illustrates an active MOS structure of a device of the present invention comprising In.sub.2O.sub.3/HfO.sub.2/p-Si for ultra-efficient E-O modulation;

(3) FIG. 1B schematically illustrates an exemplary configuration of a dual functional micro-ring resonator in accordance with the present invention with a wavelength tuning electrode and a high-speed E-O modulation electrode;

(4) FIG. 1C schematically illustrates large range resonance wavelength tuning to compensate potential fabrication errors and temperature variation, and shows highspeed E-O modulation;

(5) FIG. 1D schematically illustrates an exemplary configuration of a 4-channel on-chip WDM transmitter in accordance with the present invention that can perform E-O modulation and wavelength MUX/DeMUX independently;

(6) FIGS. 2A-2C schematically illustrate a PIN carrier injection, a reversed PN junction, and a MOS-type capacitor silicon photonic modulator, respectively;

(7) FIG. 3A illustrates a comparison of the carrier dispersion coefficient K of n-Si, p-Si and ITO;

(8) FIG. 3B schematically illustrates an exemplary configuration of a TCO MOS-driven waveguide modulator using hybrid Si-plasmonic waveguide;

(9) FIG. 3C schematically illustrates an exemplary configuration of a PlasMOStor modulator based on plasmonic slot waveguide;

(10) FIG. 4 schematically illustrates exemplary configurations of micro-ring and micro-disk resonators in accordance with the present invention and associated mode profile of micro-ring and micro-disk resonators;

(11) FIG. 5A illustrates simulated energy efficiency of a resonator-based silicon E-O modulator as a function of Purcell factor and capacitance with the assumption of perfect electro-optic field overlap for use in devices of the present invention;

(12) FIG. 5B illustrates simulated bandwidth determined by Q-factor and RC time constant;

(13) FIG. 6A illustrates an optical image of a hybrid Si-TCO micro-ring resonator as-fabricated in accordance with the present invention;

(14) FIGS. 6B, 6C illustrate measured wavelength tuning of 270 pm/V and a switching time of 20 ns, respectively, for the device of FIG. 6A;

(15) FIG. 7A illustrates a comparison of a Si-TCO MOS simulation using a classical and a quantum model;

(16) FIG. 7B illustrates an optical mode simulation of micro-ring resonators in accordance with the present invention with different waveguide width and simulated E-O tunability and Q-factor;

(17) FIG. 7C illustrates a HFSS modeling of the high-speed RF response from micro-ring resonators of the present invention;

(18) FIGS. 8A, 8B schematically illustrate exemplary configurations of a SWG micro-ring and a micro-disk resonator, respectively, in accordance with the present invention;

(19) FIG. 9A illustrates AFM measurement of sputtered a-IGZO thin film showing atomic level smoothness;

(20) FIGS. 9B, 9C illustrate free carrier mobility of an ITO thin film and permittivity measurement using ellipsometer, respectively; and

(21) FIGS. 10A-10F schematically illustrate fabrication processes of hybrid Si-TCO devices of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(22) FIGS. 1A-1D schematically illustrate an exemplary configuration of a hybrid Si-TCO photonic device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 1A shows a MOS-type capacitor including In.sub.2O.sub.3/HfO.sub.2/p-Si as the active device for ultra-efficient E-O modulation. (As used herein, the term “MOS-type capacitor” is defined to mean a capacitor having a structure similar to that of a MOS capacitor, but without the metal layer, so “MOS-type capacitors” of the present invention are metal-free in the sense that the metal of the MOS capacitor is replaced by a semiconductor, such as a metal oxide, e.g., a TCO such as In.sub.2O.sub.3, ITO, Ti:In.sub.2O.sub.3, Mo:In.sub.2O.sub.3, CdO, IGZO, and/or AZO, for example.) The MOS-type capacitor relies on the gate-voltage-induced free carrier accumulation, i.e., electrons in the In.sub.2O.sub.3 layer and holes in the p-type silicon layer, to modulate the effective index of the Si-TCO waveguide. In this configuration, a large E-O modulation effect may be achieved due to the strong plasma-dispersion effect of TCO film and the large capacitance density of the MOS structure. FIG. 1B shows a schematic of an exemplary dual-functional micro-ring resonator in accordance with the present invention, which has a wavelength tuning electrode driven by a DC bias or slow varying control signals and a high-speed E-O modulation electrode driven by a function generator or a CMOS driver. As illustrated in FIG. 1C, the dual-functional micro-ring resonator can adjust its own working wavelength over a large range through the gate voltage applied to the wavelength tuning electrode to compensate fabrication errors and temperature variation. In addition, it is capable of conducting high-speed E-O conversion from the highspeed E-O modulation electrode by modulating the peak transmission. FIG. 1D represents an on-chip transmitter having a silicon bus waveguide coupled to multiple dual-functional micro-ring resonators in accordance with the present invention. Four constant-wave (CW) lasers with wavelength of λ.sub.1 to λ.sub.N (N=4 in the figure) are coupled into the bus waveguide and each micro-ring resonator can perform E-O modulation and wavelength multiplexing/de-multiplexing (MUX/DeMUX) independently. In addition, the micro-ring resonators can dynamically compensate temperature fluctuation and fabrication variation with near-zero static power consumption, which can eliminate power-hungry thermal heaters that have been widely used in silicon PICs.

(23) There are generally three types of silicon photonic modulators as illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C: PIN structure using free carrier injection, reversed PN junction, and metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) type. Free carrier injection suffers high energy consumption due to the large recombination current and relatively low modulation speed caused by the free carrier lifetime. Most recent silicon modulators are almost exclusively based on reversed PN junctions in order to achieve low power consumption and high modulation speed. However, the maximum doping concentration can effectively only be up to ˜10.sup.18/cm.sup.3 due to the dopant-induced scattering loss of the waveguides, which limits the E-O modulation efficiency. Therefore, reversed PN junction silicon photonic modulators usually require a long modulation length or a relatively high driving voltage. As a comparison, silicon photonic modulators driven by MOS-type capacitors, such as those of the present invention, can cause free carrier accumulation from a lightly doped silicon waveguide and may induce much stronger E-O modulation effect than reversed PN junctions. In addition, the process for fabricating MOS-type capacitors can be intrinsically compatible with CMOS fabrication processes and can offer better compatibility with CMOS electronics. Unfortunately, there has been little success with conventional MOS capacitor-driven silicon modulators.

(24) To overcome the intrinsic drawback of the weak plasma dispersion effect of silicon, the present invention may integrate various functional materials, such as graphene, vanadium oxide, and ferroelectric materials, with silicon photonics to build E-O modulators, Table 1. Among these materials, TCOs are promising as a new type of plasmonic material and as active materials for E-O modulators due to the large tunability of their refractive indices. TCOs, such as indium-tin oxide (ITO) and aluminum-zinc oxide (AZO), are in a family of wide bandgap semiconductor oxide materials that can be degenerately doped to a high level. With free carrier concentrations ranging from 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3 to 1×10.sup.21 cm.sup.−3, the real part n of the refractive index could experience more than 1 refractive index unit (RIU) change. For example, FIG. 3A compares the free carrier dispersion coefficient, which is defined as the relative permittivity change to the carrier density perturbation, of n-Si, p-Si and ITO. FIG. 3A shows that ITO possesses almost 3 × larger dispersion coefficient and a TCO/HfO.sub.2/p-Si capacitor configuration should achieve ultra-high E-O efficiency.

(25) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Comparison of different active materials for hybrid integration with silicon photonics Representative Device E-O Driving Modulation Integration Thermal Materials materials loss mechanism voltage bandwidth process stability Group IV n-Si 10 dB Plasma VπL = 10 Gb/s Epi-growth High (long device) dispersion 3.3 V cm III-V InP, InGaAsP  1 dB Small Pockel, VπL = 32 Gb/s Epi-growth High compounds (short device) large plasma 0.09 V cm dispersion 2-D materials Graphene <1 dB Bandgap and 10 V 30 GHz Transfer or Medium carrier tuning CVD (oxidation) Ferroelectric LiNbO.sub.3 BaTiO.sub.3 <1 dB 3.3 pm/V  5 V  9 Gb/s Transfer or High materials 213 pm/V 1.5 V cm 4.9 GHz MBE E-O polymers AJCKL1 15 dB Pockel VπL = 100 Gb/s Spin Low 147 pm/V 0.1 V cm coating Phase change VO.sub.2 2-10 dB Phase change <1 V <1 GHz Transfer Medium materials TCO ITO 10 dB Plasma  2 V 2.5 Gb/s Sputtering High materials (plasmonic) dispersion

(26) A unique property called epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) has been verified with TCO materials. TCO electro-absorption (EA) modulators based on hybrid silicon-plasmonic waveguide (FIG. 3C) or plasmonic slot waveguide (FIG. 3C) have been demonstrated. However, these TCO EA modulators require the presence of metal gates for strong plasmonic light confinement, which introduces relatively high optical loss. In addition, switching TCO materials into ENZ requires a large change of the surface potential and the associated high driving voltage induces a strong electric field (>5 MV/cm) across the insulator layer, which is usually close to the breakdown strengths of the dielectric material of the MOS capacitor, which degrades the energy efficiency and causes the concern of long term reliability. Therefore, it is more desirable to develop low-voltage-driven micro-ring modulators relying on the resonance wavelength shifting as per the present invention.

(27) Micro-Ring Based On-Chip WDM Optical Interconnect Benefits

(28) Micro-ring resonators of the present invention can play a pivotal role in the success of silicon photonics as silicon enables micro-ring resonators of an unprecedented small size. Various silicon photonic devices such as add-drop filters, tunable filters, modulators, optical delay lines, and biosensors have already been developed. For on-chip WDM optical interconnects, micro-ring resonators can be configured to be either an optical modulator for E-O conversion or as an add/drop filter for wavelength MUX/DeMUX. Each optical ring resonator in the Tx module may serve simultaneously as the filters for DeMUX/MUX and modulators for E-O conversion, which can provide ultra-high areal bandwidth density. On the receiver side, the micro-ring resonators may serve as the wavelength filters for DeMUX to route the optical signals to the photodetectors.

(29) Existing silicon micro-ring resonators as active devices typically use reversed PN junctions and usually possess E-O tuning efficiencies of only 10˜40 pm/V, which is suitable for high-speed E-O modulation. However, the resonance wavelength λ of silicon micro-ring depends on process variations and temperature fluctuations that requires in-situ tuning and closed-loop compensations, which cannot be sufficiently compensated by the reversed PN junction structure and usually requires free carrier injection or thermal heaters. Free carrier injection and thermal tuning can induce much larger resonance wavelength tuning exceeding 100 pm/V or 120 pm/mW; nevertheless, the high-power dissipation at the steady state limits the application, especially for large scale parallel optical links where hundreds and even thousands of micro-rings are needed.

(30) MOS-Type Capacitor Design

(31) In the present invention, high mobility TCO materials are preferred as such materials can significantly reduce the free carrier absorption loss. Various TCO materials including ITO, In.sub.2O.sub.3, high mobility CdO, and amorphous indium-gallium-zinc-oxide (a-IGZO) may be used as the capacitor gate material. The other important design feature is that of the insulator layer. In accordance with devices and structures of the present invention, different thicknesses of high-dielectric constant HfO.sub.2 (5˜20 nm) may be used as the insulator later and may be deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) to be evaluated for the balance of E-O efficiency and reliability.

(32) Micro-Ring/Micro-Disk Resonator Design

(33) Micro-rings and/or micro-disks may be provided in devices of the present invention, with micro-disks potentially achieving better energy efficiency due to the smaller mode volume as shown in FIG. 4. Exemplary designs of the present invention also seek to improve the overlap between the free carriers and the optical resonance mode.

(34) Multi-Channel WDM Optical Transmitters

(35) In FIG. 1C a N-channel (N=4) WDM optical transmitter in accordance with the present invention is illustrated, which is only limited by practical concerns such as the cascaded optical loss of the micro-rings to the bus waveguides and the number of available tunable lasers for testing. Greater or fewer than N=4 channels may be provided, such as 8-channel and 16-channel WDM optical transmitters, for example.

(36) Discussion of Performance

(37) Footprint: To balance the free-spectral range (FSR) which prefers a smaller radius, and the Q-factor of micro-ring resonators which prefers a larger radius, the radius of the micro-ring may be designed around 6 μm and the radius of the micro-disks around 3 μm. including the separation needed for each micro-ring or disk, the footprint of a single resonator may then be 15×15 μm.sup.2. The total footprint of the exemplary 4-channel WDM module of FIG. 1D, including the driving electrodes, may be 100×100 μm.sup.2 which can provide ultra-high packing density for integrated photonics.

(38) Optical loss: For discrete photonic devices, the optical loss primarily comes from the fiber-to-grating coupler loss. The total coupling loss of devices of the present invention is expected to be controlled to around 6˜8 dB. Our preliminary results show that TCO-based silicon photonic devices show negligible extra loss (<0.5 dB) compared with regular silicon photonic devices, which is attributable to an ultra-smooth surface from the TCO thin film, and a short electrode length resulting from the high E-O efficiency. For large-scale PICs, the cascaded optical losses from each resonator to the bus waveguide can play a critical role.

(39) Energy Efficiency and Bandwidth: There is intrinsic trade-off between energy efficiency and bandwidth of micro-resonator modulators. We have developed a generalized model to evaluate the performance. Overall, the energy efficiency is determined by three key factors, which also adversely affect the bandwidth: Purcell factor:

(40) $P=\frac{3}{4{}^2}{\left(\frac{\lambda }{n}\right)}^3\frac{Q}{V_m},$
where g is the Q-factor, V.sub.m is the mode volume. A large Purcell factor increases the energy efficiency. From the simulation in FIG. 5A which we assume 100% overlap factor, we note that micro-disks can achieve higher Purcell factor and obtain ˜100 aJ/bit energy efficiency. However, if a large Purcell factor is achieved through the increased Q-factor, it will induce longer photon lifetime that will decrease the bandwidth, FIG. 5A. Capacitance: a large capacitance induces more charge and will improve the energy efficiency. Therefore, a high-K and thin insulator is preferred to improve the capacitance. However, a large capacitance will also increase the RC-delay and result in limited bandwidth. Electro-optic field overlap factor α describes the overlapping between the free carrier distribution and the optical mode. When α equals to 1, the modulator reaches the maximum efficiency. To maximize the energy efficiency, α should be as large as possible. MOS-driven photonic devices usually suffer low α (˜10%) because only the evanescent field is overlapping with the free carriers. Using subwavelength structures, in which TCO materials fill into the gaps between silicon nano-patches, a much higher α (˜50%) should be achieved.

(41) Table 2 summarizes the proposed design of micro-ring/micro-disk resonators in accordance with the present invention, and conservatively estimates the performance according to the simulation in FIGS. 5A, 5B and the experimental results based on a reversed vertical PN junction of a Si micro-disk modulator. The system performance of the N-channel WDM transmitters is also included. Using the Si-TCO platform, we foresee not only better energy efficiency-bandwidth product, but also near-zero static power for temperature compensation compared with state-of-the-art silicon PICs.

(42) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Expected Performance of the hybrid Si-TCO resonators and WDM module Wavelength Si-TCO Footprint Device Q- Tunability Wavelength Modulation Energy devices (μm.sup.2) loss factor FSR (pm/V) range bandwidth efficiency Micro-ring R = 6 μm 0.5 dB 5,000 2 THz 1,000 4 nm 25 Gb/s 10 fJ/bit resonator 15 × 15 Micro-disk R = 3 μm 0.5 dB 8,000 4 THz 800 4 nm 25 Gb/s  l fJ/bit resonator 10 × 10 Aggregate Areal BW WDM Footprint Coupling Device Channel Athermal Modulation BW density transmitter (μm.sup.2) loss loss spacing tolerance scheme (Gb/s) (Tb/s/mm.sup.2) 1 × 4 100 × 100   6 dB  2 dB 200 GHz 40K OOK 100 10 PAM4 200 20 1 × 16 100 × 500   6 dB 10 dB 100 GHz 30K OOK 400 8 transmitter PAM4 1000 20

(43) Gate-voltage-tuned Si-TCO micro-ring filter. The tunable micro-ring filter of the present invention may be driven by a hybrid Si-TCO MOS-type capacitor operating in carrier accumulation mode. Micro-ring resonators with 12 μm radius in accordance with the present invention were fabricated on a standard SOI wafer as shown in FIG. 6A. The same MOS-type capacitor with In.sub.2O.sub.3/16 nm HfO.sub.2/p-Si was used to tune the resonance wavelength without any thermal heater. We experimentally achieved: i) 270 pm/V wavelength tunability through the gate voltage of FIG. 6B; ii) 2 nm shift of the resonant wavelength, which can compensate ˜20 K temperature drifting; iii) switching time less than 20 ns FIG. 6C; and iv) near-zero (˜0.2 pW) static power consumption resulting from the ultra-low leakage current.

(44) Fundamental objectives of device physics of the hybrid Si-TCO micro-ring resonators of the present invention may include maximizing the E-O tunability (1,000 pm/V) and energy efficiency (1˜10 fJ/bit) of the hybrid Si-TCO micro-ring/micro-disk resonators by investigating the fundamental design in device physics. We expect to compensate fabrication errors and temperature variation with near-zero static power dissipation to lock-in the operational wavelength over a 40K temperature variation. The approach of the present invention includes focusing on two deterministic factors of the micro-ring or micro-disk resonator: i) the capacitance density of the MOS-type capacitor and ii) the overlap factor of the modulated free carriers with the optical waveguide mode.

(45) First, from the electrical perspective, the larger the capacitance density, the more free carrier density perturbation can be induced with a given gate voltage, and thus larger E-O tunability and energy efficiency. A MOS-type capacitor offers great freedom to control the capacitance density by controlling the thickness and dielectric constant of the gate oxide layer. Using a thin high-K material such as HfO.sub.2 as the gate oxide layer, much larger capacitance density can be achieved compared with a conventional reversed biased Si PN junction. Besides, unlike a carrier-injection-based PIN diode, in which large carrier perturbation can also be achieved through heavy carrier injection, requiring large holding power consumption due to the forward bias, the static power consumption of a MOS-type capacitor is almost negligible. Second, optically, an efficient tuning of the micro-ring requires good overlapping of the accumulated carriers with the optical mode. For the hybrid TCO-silicon MOS-type capacitor configuration of the present invention, the carrier accumulation only happens at the ITO/oxide and silicon/oxide interfaces, which are away from the center of the optical mode. In order to improve the overlapping, multiple designs may be employed to achieve high overlapping factors.

(46) In studying the device physics of the hybrid Si-TCO structure we look to Silvaco simulation as well as 3-D finite-difference time domain (FDTD) and finite-element analysis (FEA) simulation, both in TCO materials and MOS structure design.

(47) For Silvaco simulation for the Si-TCO MOS structure, both a classical model and quantum model may be used to determine the free carrier distribution in silicon and a-IGZO. For example, FIG. 7A shows the free carrier distribution of 1-D ITO/HfO.sub.2/p-Si MOS-type capacitor under different bias using classical and quantum models. A thin depletion layer is formed at the interface of the insulator using quantum model; however, the thickness of the accumulation layer is also expanded. The free carrier distribution of the 3-D MOS structure may be investigated in real devices.

(48) For 3-D finite-difference time domain (FDTD) and finite-element analysis (FEA) simulations, the micro-ring and micro-disk may be optimized by 3-D FDTD and FEA simulation using Rsoft by Synopsys, Inc. and Lumerical by Lumerical Inc. Design of the hybrid Si-TCO resonators in passive state with zero bias may first be optimized to achieve the desired Q-factors. After that, the dynamic light-matter interaction incorporating the free carrier distribution may also be conducted. FIG. 7B shows the simulated 6 μm radius micro-ring resonator mode with 300 nm and 400 nm waveguide width. Clearly, using a narrower waveguide enhances the evanescent field and result in higher E-O efficiency. However, the Q-factor is also sacrificed due to higher radiation loss as simulated in FIG. 7B.

(49) HFSS simulation of high-speed RF response as illustrated in FIG. 7C may be investigated the E-O modulation from both device and circuit levels. First, HFSS by ANSYS, Inc. may be used to extract the capacitance and resistance of the micro-ring, which is frequency dependent due to the carrier mobility and skin effects. Second, the equivalent RC model may be used to replace the micro-ring, and integrate the RC element with transmission line electrodes, which have 50 Ω characteristic impedance. Especially as shown in FIG. 1B, the length of the wavelength tuning electrode and high-speed E-O modulation electrode need to be specified to balance the wavelength tuning range and the energy efficiency.

(50) The subwavelength grating waveguide may also be created for extremely high E-O tuning efficiency. For instance, improving the overlap factor between the accumulated free carriers and waveguide mode by narrow waveguide will inevitably degrade the Q-factor. To achieve the E-O tunability above 1,000 pm/V and energy efficiency below 1 fJ/bit, subwavelength grating (SWG) based waveguides and photonic devices may be used. The SWG waveguide may include periodic silicon pillars in the propagation direction with a period much smaller than the operating wavelength. Within such a structure, the wave propagates in a similar way to conventional strip waveguides, but the interaction region between light and the cladding materials, which may be TCO materials per the present invention, may be greatly extended compared to traditional SOI waveguides based on evanescent wave interaction. In this respect, exemplary SWG micro-ring and micro-disk resonators in accordance with the present invention may be designed as shown in FIGS. 8A, 8B. Preliminary simulation shows the overlap factor can be improved from 10% of traditional SOI waveguides to 50% of SWG waveguides. The subwavelength gaps may be filed with TCO materials.

(51) Athermal micro-ring/micro-disk resonators in accordance with the present invention are expected to be capable of 25 Gb/s high-speed E-O modulation with 1˜10 fJ/bit energy efficiency over 40K temperature variation, while seeking a balance between energy efficiency and bandwidth. High-speed operation may be achieved through optimization of the RC-delay. In this regard, high quality, high mobility TCO materials may be provided through DC- and RF-sputtering from which prototype dual-functional micro-ring resonators may be fabricated. Discrete Si-TCO micro-resonators may demonstrate both high-speed E-O modulation and athermal operation.

(52) High quality, high mobility TCO materials deposition and characterization for most representative TCO materials and integration with silicon photonics are summarized below: ITO: polycrystal with some scattering loss, relatively low mobility (15˜20 cm.sup.2/V.Math.s), but high conductivity(1.3×10.sup.4 S/cm), suitable for high-speed E-O modulator; In.sub.2O.sub.3: polycrystal, moderate mobility (40 cm.sup.2/V.Math.s) and conductivity, suitable for balanced performance between energy efficiency and bandwidth; a-IGZO: amorphous with atomic level smoothness, moderate mobility (30˜40 cm.sup.2V.Math.s) and large range of carrier concentration (10.sup.16˜10.sup.20cm.sup.−3), perfect for high dynamic range tunable optical filters; and CdO: ultra-high carrier mobility (>200 cm.sup.2/V.Math.s), suitable for high Q-factor optical filters and ultra-energy efficient modulators.

(53) Sputtering may be used for TCO film deposition with good thickness uniformity and controllability over a wide range of substrate types and sizes. Additionally, sputtering can offer better compositional control than thermal or e-beam evaporation. An AJA International ATC Orion Series Sputtering System may be used for the deposition of TCO films. FIG. 9A shows that the deposited a-IGZO film has 0.3 nm roughness obtained by the atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurement. The Hall Effect can be used to determine carrier type, concentration, and mobility of the TCO films. Lowering the oxygen flow during the sputtering process can increase the oxygen vacancy, and hence increase the free carrier concentration. Co-annealing during the deposition can further increase the free carrier concentration. FIG. 9B shows the measured carrier concentration and mobility as a function of the O.sub.2 level. An ellipsometer may also be used to measure the dielectric constants of the TCO films based on the Drude model. An example of ITO measurement with different free carriers is shown in FIG. 9C.

(54) Device fabrication and characterization may be performed involving athermal testing and high-speed E-O modulation. The hybrid Si-TCO micro-ring resonators may be fabricated, for example, by the processes disclosed in our prior publications. (E. Li, Q. Gao, R. T. Chen, and A. X. Wang, “Ultracompact Silicon-Conductive Oxide Nanocavity Modulator with 0.02 Lambda-Cubic Active Volume,” Nano Lett. 18, (2018). Li, E., Gao, Q., Liverman, S. and Wang, A. X., 2018. One-volt silicon photonic crystal nanocavity modulator with indium oxide gate. Optics letters, 43(18), pp.4429-4432. E. Li, B. Ashrafi Nia, B. Zhou, A. X. Wang, “Transparent Conductive Oxide-Gated Silicon Microring with Extreme Resonance Wavelength Tunability,” Photonics Research, Mar. 26, 2019. The contents of each of the foregoing are incorporated herein by reference.). Testing may be conducted as follows: Static optical characterization: the transmission spectra of the micro-ring resonators may be measured at a telecommunication wavelength range to obtain the Q-factor and temperature dependence. At the working wavelength, the optical loss, extinction ratio, and leakage current may be characterized. For the athermal testing, the device may be placed on a temperature-controlled hot plate and the bias voltage used to compensate for temperature variations from room temperature to 80° C. Low speed E-O performance: The capacitance and resistance of the micro-ring/micro-disk resonators may be characterized by a probe station Alessi REL-4800, which can provide both AC (˜1 MHz) and DC C-V measurement. Low-speed (<100 MHz) E-O modulation can be directly implemented using a digital function generator and micro-probe station. The optical and E-O characterization results may be used to evaluate the design and fabrication and provide feedback and optimization. We expect 3˜5 rounds of iteration in order to achieve the target performance. High-speed and RF modulation: To efficiently deliver the high frequency driving signals, the modulator may have 50Ω impedance to match the RF source and the cables. The series resistance may be optimized through doping concentration to obtain the minimum S11 at the desired frequency of 15 GHz bandwidth for 25 Gb/s data rate. A high-speed E-O modulator characterization system including 40 Gbps PRBS generator, 30 GHz digital communication analyzer, 26.5 GHz microwave source and spectrum analyzer, and 40 GHz Cascade Microtech RF probe system has been built.

(55) Hybrid integration with AIM Photonics foundry may be performed to verify process compatibility with silicon photonics and to explore hybrid Si-TCO integration for future scalable manufacturing. For instance, a hybrid Si-TCO of the present invention may be fabricated by combining AIM Photonics 3 μm passive SOI MPW runs and TCO processes. The fabrication can thus take advantage of mature passive silicon PIC processes to produce low optical loss, high quality micro-ring and micro-disk resonators, while still allowing integration of TCO materials, which are currently not available by commercial foundry service, with silicon photonics for enhanced performance.

(56) For regular micro-rings and micro-disks, AIM Photonics PDK—Passive Silicon Photonics Process may be used for integration of hybrid Si-TCO photonic devices. Devices with narrow waveguides and SWG design as discussed above may be fabricated using a custom designed mask by providing the GDS II data for layout. After fabrication, the passive silicon photonic devices are fabricated and ion implantation performed. The entire proposed fabrication process flow is indicated in FIGS. 10A-10F.

(57) To demonstrate the potential of hybrid Si-TCO as a platform for future extreme-scale optical interconnects multi-channel, WDM transmitters may be implemented using dual-functional micro-ring resonators. The multi-channel WDM transmitters may be extended to the receiver end as well through the integration with Ge photodetectors. 4-channel, 8-channel, and 16-channel on-chip WDM transmitters in accordance with the present invention may be designed and fabricated by combing AIM Photonics passive PIC processes and TCO fabrication. Characterization of multi-channel WDM transmitters, e.g. on-chip WDM module, may demonstrate temperature independent operation up to 40K temperature variation by the gate-voltage tuning and provide aggregated high-speed E-O modulation of 4×25 Gb/s=100 Gb/s with energy efficiency exceling existing silicon photonics by 10×.

(58) These and other advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing specification. Accordingly, it will be recognized by those skilled in the art that changes or modifications may be made to the above-described embodiments without departing from the broad inventive concepts of the invention. It should therefore be understood that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments described herein, but is intended to include all changes and modifications that are within the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth in the claims.