Functionalized metal chalcogenides of partially it crystalline phase

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to a composition that includes a metal chalcogenide having a surface and a ligand, where the ligand is covalently bound to the surface. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the metal chalcogenide may be defined by MX.sub.z, where Z is between 1 and 3, inclusively, M (a metal) includes at least one of Sc, Zr, Hf, Zr, Ti, Nb, Ta, V, Mo, Cr, Re, W, S, Pt, Fe, Cu, Sb, In, Zn, Cd, P, and/or Mn, and X (a chalcogenide) includes at least one of S, Se, and/or Te.

Claims

1. A composition comprising: a metal chalcogenide comprising MoS.sub.2 having a surface; and a ligand comprising a phenyl ring and a moiety, wherein: the MoS.sub.2 is at least partially in a 1T crystalline phase, the ligand is covalently bound to the surface, and the moiety comprises at least one of a halogen or (CH.sub.3CH.sub.2).sub.2N.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the metal chalcogenide is in a form comprising at least one of a sheet or a particle.

3. The composition of claim 2, wherein the sheet comprises at least one monolayer of the metal chalcogenide.

4. The composition of claim 2, wherein the sheet has a thickness between 5.0 nm and 30 nm.

5. The composition of claim 2, wherein the particle has a characteristic length between 5.0 nm and 50,000 nm.

6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the ligand comprises at least one of Cl.sub.2Ph or BrPh.

7. The composition of claim 1, wherein the ligand comprises at least one of an electron donating functional group or an electron withdrawing functional group, as measured by at least one of a Hammett parameter or a work function.

8. The composition of claim 7, wherein the Hammett parameter is between −0.5 and 1.0.

9. The composition of claim 7, wherein the work function is between 3.0 eV and 6.0 eV.

10. The composition of claim 1, wherein: the composition catalyzes the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and the composition generates a HER catalytic current density of at least 10 mA/cm.sup.2 when provided with an overpotential of less than 1000 mV.

11. A composition comprising: MoS.sub.2 in a form of at least one of a particle or a sheet; and a ligand covalently bound to the MoS.sub.2, wherein: the ligand comprises at least one of 3,5-Cl.sub.2Ph, p-BrPh, or p-(CH.sub.3CH.sub.2).sub.2NPh, where Ph is a phenyl ring, the MoS.sub.2 is it least partially in a 1T crystalline phase, the form has a characteristic length between 5.0 nm and 50,000 nm, the composition is characterized by a Hammett parameter between −0.5 and 1.0, the composition catalyzes the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and the composition generates a HER catalytic current density of about 10 mA/cm.sup.2 when provided with an overpotential of less than 1000 mV.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Exemplary embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than limiting.

(2) FIG. 1A illustrates a schematic of the various ligands on metallic phase, a metal chalcogenide, for example MoS.sub.2, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

(3) Although the ligands in FIG. 1A are shown in the para position on the phenyl rings, ligands in at least one of the para position, the ortho position, and/or the meta position of a phenyl ring are considered within the scope of the present disclosure.

(4) FIG. 1B illustrates an atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a chemically exfoliated metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

(5) FIG. 1C illustrates extracted line profiles that demonstrate the height and length of chemically exfoliated metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. A height distribution of 3 nm to 5 nm and a length distribution of 250 nm to 400 nm are observed from the AFM topographic image (FIG. 1B).

(6) FIG. 2A illustrates Raman spectra of pristine and functionalized metallic phase MoS.sub.2 along with bulk semiconducting phase MoS.sub.2 as a comparison, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The spectra were taken with an excitation wavelength of 633 nm. All spectra contain the expected MoS.sub.2 transitions: E.sup.1.sub.2g (˜383 cm.sup.−1) and A.sub.1g (˜406 cm.sup.−1). The metallic phase MoS.sub.2 has the characteristic metallic peaks (J.sub.1, J.sub.2, and J.sub.3 located at ˜154, ˜230, and ˜326 cm.sup.−1, respectively). The functionalized MoS.sub.2 spectra have the J.sub.1 and J.sub.2 peaks but do not have the J.sub.3 peak.

(7) FIG. 2B illustrates DRIFTS spectra of MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, both functionalized and unfunctionalized metallic phase, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

(8) FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate XPS of (FIG. 3A) Mo 3d and (FIG. 3B) S 2p for unfunctionalized metallic (1 T) MoS.sub.2 and functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Since the ligands attach to the S atom, the Mo 3d spectra are similar and the S 2p spectra differ between unfunctionalized and functionalized MoS.sub.2. The Mo 3d spectra highlight that the MoS.sub.2 is dominated by the metallic phase.

(9) FIG. 3C illustrates the ratio of metallic Mo—S to S—C S 2p XPS peak areas as a function of Hammett parameter. The more electron withdrawing ligands (more positive Hammett parameter) have more ligands attached to the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets than electron donating ligands (negative Hammett parameter)

(10) FIG. 4 illustrates the relationship between work function and Hammett parameter, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The most electron donating ligand (Et.sub.2NPh) has the shallowest work function. The Hammett parameter has a positive correlation to the work function and varies by 800 meV over the various ligands.

(11) FIG. 5A illustrates linear sweep voltammograms (LSV) and FIG. 5B the corresponding Tafel plots for glassy carbon electrodes deposited with functionalized and unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 as well as the unfunctionalized bulk semiconducting phase of MoS.sub.2, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. LSVs were taken at 5 mV/s in 0.5 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 with a Ag/AgCl reference electrode and vitreous carbon counter electrode. Both panels have been iR corrected. Pt and glassy carbon electrodes for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) are included in FIG. 5A as a reference.

(12) FIG. 6A illustrates the average overpotential (taken at current density of 10 mA/cm.sup.2) and FIG. 6B the Tafel slope for the MoS.sub.2 functionalized electrodes, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Measurements were performed in 0.5 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 with a Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a vitreous carbon counter electrode.

(13) FIG. 7 illustrates the electrochemical impedance spectra (Nyquist plots) for functionalized metallic phase MoS.sub.2, unfunctionalized metallic phase MoS.sub.2, and unfunctionalized bulk semiconducting phase MoS.sub.2 on glassy carbon electrode at −0.29 V vs RHE, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

(14) FIGS. 8A-8F illustrate XPS spectra: XPS spectra of S 2p (FIGS. 8A-8C) and Mo 3d (FIGS. 8D-8F) spectra before (dashed trace) and after annealing (solid trace) for unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (FIGS. 8A and 8D) and functionalized (FIGS. 8B, 8C, 8E, and 8F) metallic MoS.sub.2, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The nanosheets were annealed in a N.sub.2 atmosphere for 24 hours at 150° C. The functional groups protected the MoS.sub.2 from undergoing conversion from the metallic phase to the semiconducting phase. The Et.sub.2NPh MoS.sub.2 (FIGS. 8C and 8F) underwent some conversion to the semiconducting (2H) phase.

(15) FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate HER stability tests for Et.sub.2NPh and metallic phase MoS.sub.2: FIG. 9A illustrates LSV for glassy carbon electrodes deposited with Et.sub.2NPh and metallic (1 T), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The scans were performed for as prepared electrodes and then electrodes following an anneal in a N.sub.2 glovebox at 150° C. for 24 hours. The as prepared bulk (2H) MoS.sub.2 electrodes are also shown for comparison. LSVs were taken at 5 mV/s in 0.5 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 with an Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a vitreous carbon counter electrode. FIG. 9B illustrates the overpotential measured as a function of time to maintain a current density of 10 mA/cm.sup.2 for the Et.sub.2NPh and metallic (1 T) MoS.sub.2 electrodes. Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 outperformed the unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 for H.sub.2 generation within ˜7 min.

(16) FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate scanning electron microscopy images of (FIG. 10A) unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, and (FIG. 10B) Et.sub.2NPH functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The nanosheets are deposited on a Si wafer.

(17) FIG. 11 illustrates fits to XPS spectra of unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels A, G, and M), Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels B, H, and N), OMePh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels C, I, and O), BrPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels D, J, and P), Cl.sub.2Ph functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels E, K, and Q), and NO.sub.2Ph functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 (Panels F, L, and R). The S 2p spectra (Panels A-F) show differences between the metallic and functionalized MoS.sub.2 due to a S—C bond. There is little difference in the Mo 3d spectra (Panels G-R) because the Mo does not participate in the bonding of the functional group. Panels G-L do not include MoO.sub.2 in the fits while Panels M-R do include MoO.sub.2 in the fits. The dashed traces are the residuals from the fits.

(18) FIG. 12 illustrates S 2p.sub.3/2 peak positions for metallic Mo—S bonds (˜161.5 eV, squares) and S—C bonds (˜163 eV, circles) plotted against the Hammett parameter. Unfunctionalized MoS.sub.2 was estimated to have a Hammett parameter of 0.23 from the DRIFTS data.

(19) FIGS. 13A-13C illustrate XPS spectra unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIG. 13A), OMePh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIG. 13B), and BrPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIG. 13C) annealed in air at 150° C. for 24 hours, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The films decomposed into MoO.sub.3.

(20) FIGS. 14A-14F illustrate XPS spectra of S 2p (FIGS. 14A-14C) and Mo 3d (FIGS. 14D-14F) spectra before (dashed trace) and after annealing (solid trace) for BrPh functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIGS. 14A and 14D), Cl.sub.2Ph functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIGS. 14B and 14E), and NO.sub.2Ph functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets (FIGS. 14C and 14F), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The nanosheets were annealed in a N.sub.2 atmosphere for 24 hours at 150° C. The functional groups protected the MoS.sub.2 from undergoing conversion from the metallic to the semiconducting state.

(21) FIG. 15 illustrates an optical microscopy image of monolayer MoS.sub.2 flakes synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with a characteristic length of up to about 50 m and having a thickness of about 0.8 nm, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(22) The present disclosure may address one or more of the problems and deficiencies of the prior art discussed above. However, it is contemplated that some embodiments as disclosed herein may prove useful in addressing other problems and deficiencies in a number of technical areas.

(23) Therefore, the embodiments described herein should not necessarily be construed as limited to addressing any of the particular problems or deficiencies discussed herein.

(24) The present disclosure relates to metal chalcogenides, for example molybdenum disulfide (MoS.sub.2), functionalized with ligands, where further examples of metal chalcogenides include transition metal chalcogenides such as WSe.sub.2, MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, WTe.sub.2, and MoTe.sub.2. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, as shown herein, functionalizing nanosheets and/or nanoparticles of transition metal chalcogenides provides a synthetic chemical route for controlling the electronic properties and stability within traditionally thermally unstable metallic states. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, and as shown herein, the fundamental electronic properties of metallic (1 T phase) nanosheets of MoS.sub.2 may be modified through functionalization with ligands by covalent bonds, resulting in the direct influence of the modified MoS.sub.2 catalyst on the kinetics of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), surface energetics of the catalyst, and stability of the catalyst. Metal chalcogenides, as defined herein, have a composition defined by MX.sub.z, where z is between 1 and 3, inclusively. M may include at least one of Sc, Zr, Hf, Zr, Ti, Nb, Ta, V, Mo, Cr, Re, W, S, Pt, Fe, Cu, Sb, In, Zn, Cd, P, and/or Mn. X may include at least one of S, Se, and/or Te. Examples of metal chalcogenides include ScS.sub.2, ScSe.sub.2, SeTe.sub.2, ZrS.sub.2, ZrSe.sub.2, HfS.sub.2, HFSe.sub.2, HfS.sub.3, HfSe.sub.3, ZrS.sub.3, ZrSe.sub.3, ZrTe.sub.3, TiS.sub.2, TiS.sub.3, TiSe.sub.3, NbS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.2, NbS.sub.3, TaS.sub.2, TaSe.sub.2, TaS.sub.3, TaSe.sub.3, VS.sub.2, VSe.sub.2, MoReS.sub.2, CrS.sub.2, WSSe.sub.2, MoSSe, MoWSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, WTe.sub.2, ReS.sub.2, ReSe.sub.2, ReNbS.sub.2, ReNbSe.sub.2, PtS.sub.2, PtSe.sub.2, PtTe.sub.2, FeSe, CuS, CuSbS.sub.2, CuInS.sub.2, CuInSe.sub.2, ZnS, ZnSe, CdS, CdSe, FePS.sub.3, FePSe.sub.3, MnPS.sub.3, MnPSe.sub.3, CdPS.sub.3, and/or CdPSe.sub.3. As shown herein, at least one of these metal chalcogenides may be functionalized with at least one ligand by a covalent bond. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a metal chalcogenide that includes at least one of MoReS.sub.2, CrS.sub.2, WSSe.sub.2, MoSSe, MoWSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, and/or WTe.sub.2 may be functionalized with at least one ligand by a covalent bond.

(25) As used herein, the term “substantially” indicates a state and/or condition that is for the most part only one state and/or conditions. For example, a state and/or condition that is “substantially A”, may be 100% in state and/or condition A. However, a state and/or condition that is “substantially A” may contain some small amounts of B, for example within the limits of detection of the analytical method used to detect A, or within the limits of a separation method used to separate A from B. For example, a metal chalcogenide may be substantially in the 1 T metallic crystalline phase, meaning the metal chalcogenide may be 100% in the 1 T phase or at some value less than 100%; e.g. greater than 95%, greater than 99%, and/or greater than 99.9%.

(26) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, chemically-exfoliated and/or CVD grown, metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets may be functionalized with ligands containing electron donating and/or electron withdrawing groups, containing organic phenyl rings, where a phenyl ring is abbreviated herein as Ph. Functionalization of the metal chalcogenides, for example MoS.sub.2, with ligands results in the ability to manipulate the electrochemical properties and stability of the metallic MoS.sub.2. It was determined that MoS.sub.2 functionalized with the most electron donating ligand, p-(CH.sub.3CH.sub.2).sub.2NPh, was the most efficient catalyst for HER of the ligands tested, with initial activity similar to the pristine metallic phase of MoS.sub.2. The p-(CH.sub.3CH.sub.2).sub.2NPh-MoS.sub.2 catalyst was shown to be more stable than unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 and outperformed unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 for continuous H.sub.2 evolution within 10 minutes under the same conditions.

(27) As shown herein, testing of MoS.sub.2 as the metal chalcogenide in the form of a nanosheet, functionalized with various ligands, the overpotential and the Tafel slope for catalytic HER both correlated directly with the electron donating strength (Hammett parameter) of the pendant group on the ligand, in this case a phenyl ring. The results are consistent with a mechanism involving ground-state electron donation or withdrawal to/from the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, which modifies the electron transfer kinetics and catalytic activity of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. In addition, the ligands tuned the work function of the metallic MoS.sub.2 surface over a range of 800 mV. The work function correlated with HER activity, and the shallowest work function resulted in the highest activity for proton reduction. The ligands preserved the metallic feature of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, inhibiting conversion to the thermodynamically stable semiconducting state (2H) when annealed at 150° C. for 24 hours in an inert atmosphere. This protection is critical to maintaining the catalytically active state of a metal chalcogenide catalyst; e.g. metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. Thus, without wishing to be bound by theory, it is proposed herein that the electron density and, therefore, reactivity of the metal chalcogenide HER catalysts may be controlled by functionalizing the catalysts with the appropriate electron withdrawing and/or electron donating ligands.

(28) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were modified with a series of substituted phenyldiazonium salts wherein the ligands (e.g. phenyl groups) formed S—C bonds between the ligands and the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to verify the functionalization of the metallic MoS.sub.2 and to measure the work function of the modified surfaces. HER studies were completed to determine the influence of the modified surfaces of the functionalized metal chalcogenide catalysts, e.g. functionalized MoS.sub.2, on the HER kinetics. The stability of the functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, for both monolayer and multilayer sheets, was quantified by measuring the chemical environment (XPS) and HER activity before and after annealing (e.g. treating at elevated temperatures in a controlled N.sub.2 environment); functionalization of the metallic sheets resulted in improved stability. The stability of both functionalized and unfunctionalized MoS.sub.2 was further explored during continuous HER catalysis over a two-hour period of time. This work demonstrates that ligands provided increased stability for the catalytically active metallic phase of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets tested and that varying the ligands from electron withdrawing to electron donating groups directly influences the electronic properties and the HER catalytic reactivity of MoS.sub.2 nanosheets.

(29) Synthesis and Characterization:

(30) Functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were synthesized following the procedure developed by Knirsch (ACS Nano 2015, 9, 6018). Briefly, bulk semiconducting MoS.sub.2 was solution-exfoliated via intercalation with n-butyl lithium (n-BuLi) and a subsequent reaction with water produced MoS.sub.2 nanosheets that were primarily in the metallic crystalline phase. After centrifugation/purification of these metallic nanosheets, they were reacted with a series of five diazonium salts (in separate reactions) to form the corresponding functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. Throughout the remainder of this disclosure p-NO.sub.2Ph-MoS.sub.2, 3,5—Cl.sub.2Ph-MoS.sub.2, p-BrPh-MoS.sub.2, p-OCH.sub.3Ph-MoS.sub.2, and p-(CH.sub.3CH.sub.2).sub.2NPh-MoS.sub.2 are referred to as NO.sub.2Ph, Cl.sub.2Ph, BrPh, OMePh, and Et.sub.2NPh, respectively, and the pristine metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets as 1 T. Note that when appropriate, the as-purchased semiconducting crystalline phase of the MoS.sub.2 powder is included for comparison and is referred to as bulk (2H). The five organic ligands tested each have a phenyl ring substituted with various moieties that are either electron donating or withdrawing (see FIG. 1A). This resulted in a range of electron donating/withdrawing properties of the ligands due to the ligands possessing a range of Hammett parameters, which are correlated to their dipole moments. The more negative the Hammett parameter, the more electron donating the moiety is to the phenyl ring and concomitantly to the MoS.sub.2 surface. Et.sub.2NPh possesses the most electron-donating moiety (e.g. Et.sub.2N) and has a corresponding Hammett parameter of −0.43. Conversely, more positive Hammett parameters correspond to more electron withdrawing moieties, with the ligand NO.sub.2Ph (having the NO.sub.2 moiety) having the largest Hammett parameter of +0.78.

(31) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a nanocrystal and/or nanosheet composition may include a ligand covalently bound to a metal chalcogenide where the ligand may have at least one moiety such as at least one of a halogen, an amine, an amide, a ketone, thiol, and/or a nitro group. Examples of a halogen include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Examples of amines include at least one of methylamine, ethylamine, dimethylamine, and/or aniline. Examples of amides include at least one of acetamide, dimethylacetamide, a phosphonamide, and/or a sulfonamide. Examples of ketones include at least one of acetone, acetylacetone, and/or methyl ethyl ketone. Examples of thiol groups include at least one of ethanedithiol and/or methanethiol. Examples of nitro groups include at least one of nitromethane, nitrotoluene, and/or nitrobenzene. A moiety may be directly bound to at least one of the metal and/or to the chalcogenide of the metal chalcogenide. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the ligand may include at least one intermediate group positioned between the moiety and the metal chalcogenide. Examples of an intermediate group include at least one of an aromatic group, a saturated hydrocarbon chain, and/or an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. Examples of an aromatic group that include a phenyl ring include at least one of anthracene and/or bipyridine. Examples of other potentially suitable ligands include at least one of pyridine, pyrazine, imidazole, and/or anthracene.

(32) The MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were characterized with atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Raman spectroscopy. The metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were not monodisperse in lateral size or layer number. FIG. 1B illustrates AFM images of three MoS.sub.2 nanosheets that were solution deposited onto a silicon substrate and are representative of the nanosheets described herein (e.g. having thicknesses between of 3 nm and 5 nm and characteristic lengths between 250 nm and 400 nm). The corresponding height profiles are shown in FIG. 1C.

(33) In addition, FIG. 15 illustrates an optical microscopy image of monolayer MoS.sub.2 flakes synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with a characteristic length of up to about 50 m and having a thickness of about 0.8 nm, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. To gain additional morphology information, metallic and Et.sub.2NPh MoS.sub.2 were measured with SEM (see FIGS. 10A and 10B); obvious changes to the morphology after functionalization are not evident. In addition, metallic and functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were characterized with Raman, using an excitation wavelength of 633 nm (see FIG. 2A). All MoS.sub.2 spectra contained the expected transitions at −383 cm.sup.−1 (E.sup.1.sub.2g) and ˜406 cm.sup.−1 (A.sub.1g). The Raman spectrum of the metallic MoS.sub.2 has distinct features at 154, 230, and 326 cm.sup.−1, which correspond to the J.sub.1, J.sub.2, and J.sub.3 modes, respectively. The functionalized MoS.sub.2 samples also have J.sub.1 and J.sub.2 peaks, whereas the J.sub.3 peak is not observed with appreciable signal-to-noise, indicating that the functionalized MoS.sub.2 mainly remained in the metallic phase.

(34) The chemical environments of functionalized and bare MoS.sub.2 were quantified by diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), XPS, and combustion analysis. DRIFTS spectra (see FIG. 2B) confirmed the presence of the phenyl ring-containing ligands in all functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets except for the Et.sub.2NPh ligand sample, which was not measured. The NO.sub.2Ph ligand spectrum shows characteristic asymmetric (1518 cm.sup.−1) and symmetric (1342 cm.sup.−1) stretches for the NO.sub.2 moiety, along with the NO.sub.2 scissor mode at 853 cm.sup.−1. The OMePh ligand spectrum shows symmetric (1463 cm.sup.−1) and asymmetric (1440 cm.sup.−1) stretches for the OMe moiety, along with Ph-O (1291 cm.sup.−1 and 1250 cm.sup.−1) and PhO—CH.sub.3 (1025 cm.sup.−1) stretches as well as the O—CH.sub.3 rocking mode (1180 cm.sup.−1).

(35) The DRIFTS data (see FIG. 2B) also provide a measurement of the polar interaction between the MoS.sub.2 and the phenyl ring of the ligands. The phenyl ring has four characteristic modes, split into two quadrant deformations around 1550-1600 cm.sup.−1 and two semicircle deformations around 1450-1500 cm.sup.−1. The higher-energy semicircle deformation around 1500 cm.sup.−1 is only IR active when the phenyl ring has an electron donating group on it. This is consistent with the presence of a strong feature at 1492 cm.sup.−1 in the OMePh ligand spectrum, but the lack of a higher energy peak in the BrPh ligand spectrum and the Cl.sub.2Ph ligand spectrum (such a feature would likely be obscured by the NO.sub.2 moiety asymmetric peak in the NO.sub.2Ph ligand spectrum). In addition, the quadrant stretch modes are IR inactive for para-substituted phenyl rings where the substituents have identical electron donating or withdrawing character, maintaining a mirror of symmetry. Interestingly, the BrPh ligand spectrum shows almost no quadrant stretching, despite the fact that the para substituents are Br and MoS.sub.2. This indicates that the MoS.sub.2 contributes a similar amount of electron density to the phenyl ring as the Br group and has a similar Hammett parameter of around 0.23. In support of this analysis, the quadrant stretches on the other three phenyl groups behave as expected: the OMePh ligand spectrum shows the normal intensity ratio where the higher energy peak at 1594 cm.sup.−1 is more intense than the peak at 1570 cm.sup.−1; the Cl.sub.2Ph ligand spectrum shows an inverted intensity ratio for its peaks due to extending resonance to the two Cl moieties (1562 cm.sup.−1 peak is more intense than the 1591 cm.sup.−1 peak); and the NO.sub.2Ph ligand spectrum shows roughly equal intensity of the 1598 cm.sup.−1 and 1576 cm.sup.−1 peaks due to its less complete resonance with the phenyl ring.

(36) XPS was utilized to determine the atomic compositions of the MoS.sub.2, percentage of MoS.sub.2 that was in the metallic phase, and the work function of the different films. The Mo 3d and S 2p core-level XPS results for the modified and unmodified MoS.sub.2 are shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. These XPS measurements on both the modified and unmodified MoS.sub.2 nanosheets show that the concentration of C and O impurities was low. For each of the modified nanosheets, the atomic species expected for each moiety for each corresponding ligand was observed (N for Et.sub.2NPh and NO.sub.2Ph, Br for BrPh, and Cl for Cl.sub.2Ph, data not shown). In the case of the OMePh ligand, there is not a unique atom, DRIFTS confirms functionalization for this functional group. Table 1 highlights the S:Mo and S:X ratio, where X is the unique atom for that functional group. The ratios were determined from multiple XPS measurements. The S:Mo ratios are close to the expected value of 2. The S:X ratios vary between samples due to differences in ligand coverage on the MoS.sub.2 from batch to batch and the degree to which the ligand readily attaches to the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets; therefore, only X was used as a qualitative confirmation of the presence of the ligands.

(37) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 The XPS atomic ratios (S:Mo and S:X), % of MoS.sub.2 that is metallic (% 1T), and workfunction (ϕ) energies for the modified and unmodified metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. MoS.sub.2 S:Mo S:X.sup.a % 1T.sup.b ϕ, eV.sup.c 1T 2.0 NA 81 3.81 Et.sub.2NPh 2.6 2.3 81 4.06 OMePh 2.2 NA 78 4.25 BrPh 2.1 2.4 82 4.75 Cl.sub.2Ph 2.6 0.4 84 4.85 NO.sub.2Ph 2.2 1.8 76 4.68 .sup.aX is the unique atom of the functional group, e.g. X = Cl for Cl.sub.2Ph. .sup.bThe % 1T is taken from Mo 3d fits, where MoO.sub.2 is included. See SI for more details. Estimated standard deviation of +/− 8%. .sup.cThe energy uncertainty for ϕ is +/− 25 meV.

(38) In addition to the XPS results, elemental analysis measurements were completed to give relative quantities between Et.sub.2NPh ligands and NO.sub.2Ph ligands. For the CHN combustion analysis (see below), dried powders of the Et.sub.2NPh and NO.sub.2Ph MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were used. This elemental analysis confirms the presence of N in both powders (see Table 2). However, the relative amount of CHN, per mole of MoS.sub.2, was reduced in the Et.sub.2NPh compared to the NO.sub.2Ph powder. This result verifies a lower ligand coverage on MoS.sub.2 for the Et.sub.2NPh ligand compared to NO.sub.2Ph ligand and is consistent with the XPS S 2p results (see FIG. 3C).

(39) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 CHN analysis of N containing functionalized MoS.sub.2 Samples. Mass % Expected Found C H N C H N C H N NO.sub.2Ph 35.87 2.00 8.38 6 4 1 6.00 3.98 1.20 Et.sub.2NPh 18.02 2.20 2.55 10 14 1 10.00 14.52 1.21

(40) In FIG. 3B, the XPS spectra of S 2p confirms the presence of S—C bonding for the functionalized MoS.sub.2. The metallic MoS.sub.2 spectrum clearly shows the S 2p spin orbit splitting of the metallic state (and a small contribution from the 2H state). The functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets have additional features at higher binding energy (162.5-165 eV), which are consistent with a S—C bond. The observation of this S—C bond gives additional evidence that the OMePh-MoS.sub.2 sample is functionalized, since there is not a unique atom to identify the functional group with XPS. The functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets with electron withdrawing ligands (NO.sub.2Ph, Cl.sub.2Ph, and BrPh) have more intensity in the S—C region than the electron donating groups (see FIG. 3B). This suggests that the electron withdrawing groups have greater functional group coverage on the MoS.sub.2 than the electron donating groups and is consistent with the CHN combustion analysis. Fits to the core level XPS spectra are shown in FIG. 11, Panels A-R. FIG. 3C plots the ratio of the areas of the 1 T Mo—S bond to the S—C bond. It is clear from FIG. 3C that the more electron withdrawing ligands have greater coverage on the MoS.sub.2 than the more electron donating ligands. Mechanistically, the electron withdrawing ligands readily functionalize the negatively charged metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets compared to the electron donating ligands; the degree of functionalization depends, at least partly, on the balance of nanosheet charge density and the ligands neutralizing the charge.

(41) The S 2p peak positions of the S—C and metallic Mo—S bonds are consistent between the different functionalized nanosheets and do not have a dependence on Hammett parameter (see FIG. 12). High-resolution XPS core level measurements are sensitive to changes in the local atomic environment and are reported with respect to the Fermi level (i.e., electron binding energy). As expected, the functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets have an additional S peak because of the new bond formed between the MoS.sub.2 and the ligand. This appears at higher binding energy with respect to the Mo—S bond. As for the S—C bond peak position, this does not change with ligand because the local atomic environment is the same (specifically, the S oxidation state is the same) and the Fermi level to core level energy difference is not changing with ligand.

(42) The Mo 3d peaks (see FIG. 3A) also give detailed information about the chemical environment. Like S 2p, Mo 3d also has a spin orbit splitting (3.13 eV). The Mo 3d peak contains contributions from MoS.sub.2, MoO.sub.3, and MoO.sub.2. For the S:Mo ratio, only the integrated Mo 3d area associated with MoS.sub.2 was used (fits to the spectra are shown in FIG. 11, Panels A-R). From individual fits of the spectra, the percentage of MoS.sub.2 in the metallic phase was quantified, which is ˜80% (see Table 1 above). Importantly, FIG. 3B demonstrates that the ligands do not change the Mo 3d features and the Mo environment remains the same. This again verifies that the ligands are bonding to the S and not to the Mo of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets.

(43) Surface Energetics

(44) To determine the degree to which the ligands influenced MoS.sub.2 surface energetics, XPS was used to measure the work function (difference between the vacuum and Fermi levels). Table 1 above lists the average work function for the functionalized MoS.sub.2 samples, where between 2 films and 5 films from separate reactions were measured for each ligand. There is a clear trend in how the work function varied with chemical functionalization (see FIG. 4); as the Hammett parameter increases (more electron withdrawing), the work function at the surface increases (requires more energy to remove an electron from the surface, deeper work function). Although there is some variation in the work function measurements of each sample type, due to differences in the amount of ligand per MoS.sub.2, there is a positive correlation between the work function and Hammett parameter, with a large change of approximately 800 meV across the entire series. These differences in surface energetics in turn influence the HER activity of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, which is discussed below.

(45) HER Activity

(46) To determine the effects of functionalization of metal chalcogenides on HER, drop-cast dispersions of modified MoS.sub.2 onto freshly polished glassy carbon electrodes were performed to acquire linear sweep voltammograms (LSVs) (see FIGS. 5A and 5B). Typically, LSVs are used to determine the overpotential, Tafel slope, and current density of an electrochemical reaction of interest. The overpotential is the excess energy above the required thermodynamic potential in order to achieve a particular rate for hydrogen evolution. The Tafel slope is related to the kinetic rate and exchange current of the electrochemical reaction, and its slope can provide information on rate-determining steps for the reaction. With respect to the HER, it is desirable to minimize the Tafel slope, as this typically reduces the overpotential needed to reach appreciable catalytic current densities and is indicative of facile kinetics.

(47) As the moiety on the phenyl ring was changed from the most electron withdrawing (Cl.sub.2Ph, Hammett parameter=0.74) to the most electron donating (Et.sub.2NPh, Hammett parameter=−0.43), a systematic shift to lower values in the overpotential and an increase in the catalytic rate towards hydrogen evolution was observed. As the Hammett parameter of the moiety decreased, the overpotential required to achieve 10 mA/cm.sup.2 catalytic current density decreased from 881 mV for Cl.sub.2Ph to 348 mV for Et.sub.2NPh. This ˜500 mV shift was accompanied by a decrease in the Tafel slope from 213 mV/dec to 75 mV/dec. A tabulation of the electrochemical parameters can be found in Table 3. The Tafel slope of the most electron donating ligand (Et.sub.2NPh) is similar to metallic MoS.sub.2; however, the more electron withdrawing groups perform worse than bulk 2H (e.g. semiconductor phase) MoS.sub.2. This correlation between the ligands and the MoS.sub.2 catalyst HER activity gives insight into the mechanism by which the ligands and/or moieties interact with the MoS.sub.2 surface.

(48) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Electrochemical parameters with iR corrections for modified, metallic phase, and bulk semiconductor phase MoS.sub.2 catalysts. The Tafel slope, exchange current density (j.sub.0), and overpotential ( η) at 10 mA/cm.sup.2 are listed for each of the electrodes..sup.a Tafel η, i = 10 Hammett Slope j.sub.0 mA/cm.sup.2 Parameter.sup.b (mV/dec) (μA/cm.sup.2) (mV) Cl.sub.2Ph 0.74 213 ± 33 1.5 ± 1.3 881 ± 13 BrPh 0.23 170 ± 7  0.4 ± 0.1 822 ± 11 OMePh −0.27 136 ± 8  1.2 ± 0.4 691 ± 23 Et.sub.2NPh −0.43 75 ± 3 0.3 ± 0.1 348 ± 7  1T ~0.23.sup.c 61 ± 7 1.9 ± 2.5 271 ± 36 Bulk (2H) NA 186 ± 54 1.1 ± 0.7 737 ± 46 .sup.aAverages and standard deviations are from three separate electrode preparations. .sup.bValues taken from Taft et al..sup.25 .sup.cEstimated equivalent value obtained from DRIFTS data.

(49) FIG. 6 highlights the correlation between Hammett parameter and the activity of the functionalized MoS.sub.2 catalysts. As the Hammett parameter is increased, so does the Tafel slope and the overpotential required to reach a catalytic current density of 10 mA/cm.sup.2. NO.sub.2Ph ligand data are not included in these graphs, as the nitro group was not stable under reductive conditions in acidic solution, presumably forming the ammonium substituted phenyl.

(50) HER Mechanism

(51) Based on the results described herein, and without wishing to be bound by theory, it is proposed herein that electron withdrawing (electrophilic) ligands remove more electron density from the metal chalcogenide nanosheets than the electron donating (nucleophilic) ligands, which ultimately determines the maximum amount of ligands obtainable per MoS.sub.2 nanosheet. To further support this HER mechanism, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was completed to probe the electron transfer kinetics at the MoS.sub.2/electrolyte interface, as the low frequency region in the EIS can be used to determine the charge transfer resistance of the interface. From the EIS data, the radius of the half circle was used to qualitatively describe the charge transfer resistance (Nyquist plots).

(52) The EIS data (see FIG. 7) illustrate that the Et.sub.2NPh electrode behaved similarly to that of metallic MoS.sub.2. As the ligand became more electron withdrawing, the charge transfer resistance of the functionalized MoS.sub.2 was larger than the bulk semiconducting phase of MoS.sub.2. The EIS and HER electrochemistry results complement each other and support the mechanism that the functional group on metallic MoS.sub.2 is either donating electron density or removing electron density from the metal chalcogenide nanosheet, which in turn changed the electron-transfer kinetics and HER activity. When excess charge was present on the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, the metallic phase maintained its high sheet conductance and low charge transfer resistance; conversely, when the excess charge was removed (by electron withdrawing ligands), the sheet conductance was reduced and the charge transfer resistance was increased, making the Cl.sub.2Ph and BrPh MoS.sub.2 behave worse than the bulk semiconducting phase for HER. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is possible that the ligand may block the reactive S site, and as more ligands are present (electron withdrawing groups) the number of active sites may decrease. However, without being bound by theory, it is proposed that the amount of ligand attached to the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets may be a balance of MoS.sub.2 nanosheet charge and the Hammett parameter.

(53) Stability

(54) Although metallic MoS.sub.2 is more catalytically active for HER than bulk semiconducting phase MoS.sub.2, the metallic phase is thermodynamically unstable and with time and/or heat and tends to revert back to the semiconducting phase. Understanding how to preserve the metallic state of MoS.sub.2 is important to maintaining the catalytic activity of the basal sites. To this end, modified and unmodified MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, before and after annealing (e.g. heat treatment), were studied. When samples are annealed at 150° C. for 24 hours under atmospheric condition (e.g. at −21 mol % oxygen and ˜79 mol % nitrogen) the MoS.sub.2 underwent conversion to MoO.sub.3 and very little MoS.sub.2 remained, as determined by XPS core level analysis (see FIGS. 13A-13C). It is evident from the spectra that metallic MoS.sub.2 cannot withstand atmospheric conditions at elevated temperatures. However, when the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were annealed in a N.sub.2 glovebox at 150° C. for 24 hours, the MoS.sub.2 did not convert to MoO.sub.3. FIGS. 8A-8F shows the XPS core level data of Mo 3d and S 2p before and after annealing for non-functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, OMePh functionalized MoS.sub.2, and Et.sub.2NPh functionalized MoS.sub.2. The metallic, non-functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheet converted from being predominantly in the metallic phase (˜80% 1 T) as determined by Mo 3d peak fitting) to a predominance of the semiconducting phase (˜75% 2H) under these conditions (see FIGS. 8A and 8D).

(55) In comparison, the XPS data for the functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets did not show a change in the Mo 3d and S 2p peaks for OMePh, BrPh, Cl.sub.2Ph, and NO.sub.2Ph ligands (BrPh, Cl.sub.2Ph, and NO.sub.2Ph annealed spectra are similar to OMePh and are shown in FIG. 12). The spectra show no appreciable changes after annealing, indicating that the metallic nature of MoS.sub.2 was preserved for the functionalized MoS.sub.2, relative to unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2, for the annealing conditions tested. This result suggests that functionalization through a S—C bond and/or removing some amount of excess charge inhibits conversion back to the semiconducting state of MoS.sub.2. The Et.sub.2NPh functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets did change before and after annealing but to a much smaller degree than the pristine metallic MoS.sub.2. This conversion may be due to excess charge remaining on the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets following functionalization with the electron donating (nucleophilic) Et.sub.2NPh ligand and/or relatively poor coverage of the MoS.sub.2 nanosheet by the Et.sub.2NPh ligand. The stability provided by functionalization to MoS.sub.2 fits with our proposed mechanism by which the functional groups influence the HER mechanism. Specifically, the more electron withdrawing (electrophilic) ligands remove excess charge from the metal chalcogenide nanosheets, while “locking in” the metallic phase. When excess charge remains on the metal chalcogenide sheets, like with Et.sub.2NPh ligands, the nanosheets have a lower thermodynamic barrier for the conversion of metallic phase (1 T) to the semiconducting phase (2H).

(56) Two experiments were conducted to test the stability of the functionalized MoS.sub.2 under HER conditions. First, the LSVs were measured for both “fresh” electrodes (consistent with those presented in FIG. 5) and electrodes that are annealed at 150° C. for 24 hours under N.sub.2 environment (similar to conditions for the data presented in FIGS. 8A-8F). FIG. 9A illustrates the effect of annealing on HER performance and is shown for the Et.sub.2NPh ligand-functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 and unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2. The unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 degraded significantly and approached that of the bulk, semiconducting phase MoS.sub.2 electrode. This result is consistent with the XPS annealing data (see FIGS. 8A and 8D). The Et.sub.2NPh functionalized MoS.sub.2 electrode was more resilient to this annealing step and degraded only slightly, which is again consistent with the XPS annealing data (see FIGS. 8C and 8F). The functional groups stabilize the underlying MoS.sub.2, which prevents the conversion from the normally unstable metallic phase to the normally stable semiconducting phase.

(57) Second, the durability of the Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 and unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrodes under HER conditions were studied over a two-hour period (see FIG. 9B), where the overpotential required to maintain 10 mA/cm.sup.2 was monitored as a function of time. As can be seen in FIG. 9B, the unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 performance degraded quickly and became worse than the Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode within 7 minutes. Over the two-hour period, the unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode required an additional 0.139 V to maintain the current density. This is very different from the Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode, which only degraded slightly over the two-hour period. The Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode only required an additional 0.014 V to maintain 10 mA/cm.sup.2 over the two-hour period. The enhanced stability of the Et.sub.2NPh functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode, compared to the unfunctionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 electrode, is very encouraging for utilizing these types of functionalized metal chalcogenide nanosheets for realistic long-term catalysis (e.g., HER) applications.

(58) The results presented herein demonstrate a strong correlation between the electron donating strength of ligands and the surface energetics, electron transfer resistance, and the HER catalytic activity of functionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets. The functionalized nanosheets are more stable to the thermally initiated phase transformation from the metallic 1 T phase to the semiconducting 2H phase. Furthermore, it is shown herein for an exemplary functionalized metal chalcogenide (Et.sub.2NPh-MoS.sub.2) that functionalization leads to better stability and long-term performance under HER conditions. These results provide a framework for understanding and controlling the balance between catalytic activity and stability for these unique 2D materials. Formation of S—C bonds via covalent surface functionalization protects the catalytically active, metastable, metallic phase. The HER catalytic activity is compromised for ligands that remove appreciable electron density from the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets and have more functional groups per MoS.sub.2 nanosheet. Thus, there may ultimately be a balance between catalytic activity (optimized initially for metallic phase MoS.sub.2, relative to semiconducting phase and functionalized MoS.sub.2) and stability (using a functional group that forms a S—C bond to kinetically protect the metastable metallic phase MoS.sub.2).

(59) MoS.sub.2 Preparation and Functionalization

(60) MoS.sub.2 powder was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and vacuum dried at 100° C. overnight prior to use. The chemically exfoliated metallic phase MoS.sub.2 was prepared wherein 5 mL of n-BuLi (2.5 M) in hexanes was added to a suspension of 500 mg (3.1 mmol) of MoS.sub.2 in 5 mL of dry hexanes and allowed to stir under an inert atmosphere for 48 hours. The reaction was then quenched with ˜100 mL of Milli-Q water. After hydrogen evolution ceased, the resulting suspension was then washed twice with ˜100 mL of hexane to remove organic impurities and then tip sonicated at ˜120 W for one hour in an ice bath. The solution was centrifuged at 800 rpm for 90 min to remove unreacted material. The solution was then decanted off and subjected to three centrifugations at 13200 rpm (21,400 g) for 90 minutes at 20° C. to remove small amounts of MoS.sub.2 and LiOH. In addition to previous solution process, MoS.sub.2 was synthesized by CVD, by using a three-temperature-zone furnace with dedicated temperature programs for sulfur flakes (Sigma Aldrich), MoO.sub.3 powders (Sigma Aldrich), and sapphire substrates (University Wafer). The sulfur flakes and sapphire wafers were placed at Zone 1 and Zone 3, respectively. The MoO.sub.3 powders were placed at Zone 2 but loaded in an insert tube which was hooked up to an individual flow controller. A gas of mixed argon and 4 vol % O.sub.2 was supplied via the insert tube with a flow rate of 25 sccm while the mainstream flow rate outside the insert tube was about 125 sccm of pure argon. During the growth, the temperatures for Zones 1, 2, and 3 were 140° C., 530° C., and 850° C., respectively. The pressure of the growth chamber was maintained at 1 Torr. The growth duration was about 30 minutes. The given CVD grown method provides semiconducting MoS.sub.2 monolayer sheets. To convert the semiconducting MoS.sub.2 to metallic phase, the MoS.sub.2 was soaked in 2.5 M n-BuLi/hexane solution in inert gas for 10 mins, following with twice hexane washing to remove excessive n-BuLi.

(61) The MoS.sub.2 was functionalized by suspending ˜100 mg of metallic MoS.sub.2 or CVD sheets with substrates in Milli-Q water and adding dropwise ˜5 mL of a 10 mg/mL solution of the corresponding tetrafluoroborate salt: 4-p-Diazo-N,N-Diethylaniline Fluoborate (MP Biomedicals), 4-Methoxybenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate (Sigma-Aldrich), 3,5-Dichlorophenyldiazonium tetrafluoroborate (Sigma-Aldrich), 4-Bromobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate (Sigma-Aldrich), or 4-Nitrobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate (Sigma-Aldrich). The solutions were then allowed to stir overnight. For MoS.sub.2 nanosheets, the resulting precipitate was collected by filtration and washed twice with 20 mL of water to remove any unreacted material. The resulting material was then dried under vacuum.

(62) Characterization

(63) Metallic unfunctionalized MoS.sub.2 nanosheets and functionalized metallic MoS.sub.2 nanosheets were prepared for the various characterization experiments. The nanosheets were made by suspending metallic MoS.sub.2 in DMF or suspending the modified MoS.sub.2 in DMF or anisole and then drop-casting solutions of the modified and unmodified MoS.sub.2 nanosheets onto different substrates (Si substrate—AFM and Raman, Au substrate—XPS, glassy carbon substrate—electrochemistry). All nanosheets were stored under a flowing N.sub.2 environment (atmospheric pressure) or vacuum until being removed and exposed to ambient air for limited time. CHN analysis of the Et.sub.2NPh and NO.sub.2Ph powders were performed by Midwest MicroLab (Indianapolis, Ind.).

(64) Photoelectron Spectroscopy

(65) XPS data were obtained on a Physical Electronics 5600 system using Al K□ radiation. The XPS setup was calibrated with Au metal, which was cleaned via Ar-ion sputtering. The energy uncertainty for the core level data is +/−0.05 eV and for the work function measurements are +/−0.025 eV. In order to measure XPS on our series of MoS.sub.2 nanomaterials, thin films were made on Au substrates by solution deposition. All samples were checked for and did not exhibit charging, which was verified by X-ray power dependence measurements. Atomic percentages have +/−5% error.

(66) Electrochemistry

(67) Electrochemical measurements were controlled by a CH Instruments 600D potentiostat coupled with a Pine analytical rotator. Measurements were taken in 0.5 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 with a Ag/AgCl reference electrode and vitreous carbon counter electrode. For a typical measurement, 10 μL of a 1 mg/mL solution of the nanosheets suspended in DMF was drop cast onto a freshly polished 5 mm diameter glassy carbon electrode. All LSVs were performed at 5 mV/s and 1600 rpm and the electrolyte was degassed for 15 minutes with N.sub.2 prior to experiments. Impedance measurements were carried out with the same setup with no rotation and measured at frequencies ranging from 1 GHz to 10 Hz at a constant overpotential of −0.29 V vs RHE.

(68) Confocal Raman

(69) An inVia Renishaw confocal Raman microscope with a Coherent HeNe 633 nm laser was used for characterizing the Raman signatures of MoS.sub.2 nanosheet samples with and without functionalization. The samples were scanned by a 100× objective lens with 5% laser intensity (˜0.135 mW) and dispersed by 1800 lines mm.sup.−1 in air under ambient conditions.

(70) DRIFTS

(71) Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (DRIFTS) spectra were acquired on a Bruker ALPHA FTIR Spectrometer using the DRIFTS sampling accessory. The samples were deposited by drop-casting onto aluminum-coated polished silicon wafer fragments (roughly 5 mm×5 mm), and the instrument was baselined against fragments from the same wafer. The instrument settings for both baseline and sample were 128 scans, 2 cm.sup.−1 resolution, from 360 to 7000 cm.sup.−1.

(72) Atomic Force Microscopy

(73) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to image the 2D MoS.sub.2 flakes that were solution deposited onto a silicon substrate. The ambient environment AFM uses a Park AFM XE-70 controller and is housed inside an acoustic box that is located on top of a vibration isolation table. Budget sensors silicon cantilevers (Tapp300G, ˜300 kHz) were used to image surface topography images in intermittent contact mode.

(74) Scanning Electron Microscopy

(75) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to image the MoS.sub.2 nanosheets that were solution deposited onto a silicon substrate in a concentration that is consistent with the electrodes. All SEM images were taken in a FEI Nova 630 system.

(76) The foregoing discussion and examples have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. The foregoing is not intended to limit the aspects, embodiments, or configurations to the form or forms disclosed herein. In the foregoing Detailed Description for example, various features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations are grouped together in one or more embodiments, configurations, or aspects for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. The features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations, may be combined in alternate aspects, embodiments, or configurations other than those discussed above. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the aspects, embodiments, or configurations require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment, configuration, or aspect. While certain aspects of conventional technology have been discussed to facilitate disclosure of some embodiments of the present invention, the Applicants in no way disclaim these technical aspects, and it is contemplated that the claimed invention may encompass one or more of the conventional technical aspects discussed herein. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate aspect, embodiment, or configuration.