Sample Testing Systems And Methods

Abstract

A testing arrangement and testing method using a manipulator assembly configured to manipulate an apertured surface to and from a sample area and a cleaning area and a controller configured to control the manipulator assembly, wherein the controller includes a sample module configured to control the apertured surface through the sample area, which is configured to contain biological sample targets, and wherein the control system enables re-use of the apertured surface with at least two different biological sample targets.

Claims

1. A control system comprising: a manipulator assembly configured to manipulate an apertured surface to and from a sample area and a cleaning area; and a controller configured to control the manipulator assembly; wherein the controller comprises a sample module configured to control the apertured surface through the sample area, which is configured to contain biological sample targets; and wherein the control system enables re-use of the apertured surface with at least two different biological sample targets.

2. The control system of claim 1, wherein the controller further comprises: a cleaning module configured to control the apertured surface through the cleaning area configured to contain cleaning solution, the cleaning area fluidically separate from the sample area; and a testing module configured to control the apertured surface into contact with a biological sample target of the biological sample targets to test for at least one characteristic of the biological sample target.

3. The control system of claim 1, wherein the cleaning module is configured to control an automated pressure assembly in communication with the apertured surface; wherein the cleaning module is further configured to control the application, by the automated pressure assembly, from negative to positive pressures relative to atmosphere to draw toward and expel from the apertured surface at least a portion of cleaning solution in the cleaning area; and wherein the cleaning module is further configured to control the amount of cleaning solution drawn into the apertured surface so it reaches a height of a testing implement having the apertured surface, the height determined to sufficiently clean remnants of the tested sample target located at and beyond the apertured surface.

4. A biological sample testing system comprising: the control system of claim 1; the apertured surface; and a re-use assembly comprising: the sample area; and the cleaning area configured to contain cleaning solution, the cleaning area fluidically separate from the sample area; wherein the controller is further configured to: manipulate the apertured surface into contact with a biological sample target of the biological sample targets to test for at least one characteristic of the biological sample target; and manipulate the apertured surface to the cleaning area, wherein remnants of the tested biological sample target are cleaned from the apertured surface.

5. A biological sample testing system comprising: a testing implement with a testing tip having an aperture; a manipulator assembly configured to manipulate the testing implement; and a re-use assembly comprising: a sample area configured to contain biological sample targets; a cleaning area configured to contain cleaning solution, the cleaning area fluidically separate from the sample area; wherein the manipulator assembly is configured to: manipulate the aperture of the testing implement into contact with a biological sample target of the biological sample targets to test for at least one characteristic of the biological sample target; and manipulate the testing implement to the cleaning area, wherein remnants of the tested biological sample target are cleaned from the testing implement; wherein the re-use assembly enables re-use of the testing tip of the testing implement with at least two different biological sample targets.

6. The biological sample testing system of claim 5, wherein at least one characteristic of the tested biological sample target is selected from the group consisting of an electrical activity, a molecular activity, a drug screening property, biological sample target type, a biophysical property, a morphological property and a genetic property.

7. The biological sample testing system of claim 5 further comprising a controller configured to control the manipulator assembly and the re-use assembly.

8. The biological sample testing system of claim 5, wherein the manipulator assembly is configured to manipulate the testing implement to the cleaning area whether or not the test for at least one characteristic of the biological sample target is successful.

9. The biological sample testing system of claim 5 further comprising an automated pressure assembly in communication with the testing tip of the testing implement; wherein the automated pressure assembly is configured to apply from negative to positive pressures relative to atmosphere to draw toward and expel from the aperture at least a portion of cleaning solution in the cleaning area; and wherein cleaning solution is drawn a height into the testing implement sufficient to clean remnants of the tested sample target located at and beyond the aperture.

10. The biological sample testing system of claim 5 further comprising at least a second testing implement with a testing tip having an aperture.

11. The biological sample testing system of claim 5, wherein the sample area comprises two or more discrete sample units fluidically separate from one another.

12. The biological sample testing system of claim 5, wherein the cleaning area comprises two or more discrete cleaning units fluidically separate from one another.

13. The biological sample testing system of claim 7, wherein the controller is a software control module.

14. The biological sample testing system of claim 7, wherein the manipulator assembly comprises an automated micro- or nano-positioner; and wherein the controller is configured to automatically control: manipulation of the aperture of the testing implement into contact with a first biological sample target of the biological sample targets; after the test, manipulation of the testing implement to the cleaning area; after cleaning, manipulation of the testing implement to the sample area; manipulation of the aperture of the testing implement into contact with a second biological sample target of the biological sample targets, the second biological sample target different than the first biological sample target; and after the test, manipulation of the testing implement to the cleaning area.

15. The biological sample testing system of claim 13, wherein the controller further comprises hardware embedded with the software control module.

16. The biological sample testing system of claim 14, wherein the test of the first biological sample target and the test of the second biological sample target are separately selected from the group consisting of successfully testing at least one characteristic and unsuccessfully testing at least one characteristic.

17. A method of biological sample testing comprising: manipulating an apertured surface to and from a sample area and a cleaning area; controlling the apertured surface through the sample area, which is configured to contain biological sample targets; and re-using the apertured surface with at least two different biological sample targets.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein controlling the apertured surface through the sample area comprises: contacting the apertured surface with a first biological sample target of the biological sample targets; and testing for at least one characteristic of the first biological sample target; and wherein re-using the apertured surface comprises: cleaning remnants of the tested biological sample target from the apertured surface; and contacting the apertured surface with a second biological sample target of the biological sample targets; wherein at least one characteristic of the tested biological sample targets is selected from the group consisting of an electrical activity, a molecular activity, a drug screening property, biological sample target type, a biophysical property, a morphological property and a genetic property.

19. The method of claim 18, cleaning remnants of the tested biological sample target from the apertured surface comprises: applying from negative to positive pressures relative to atmosphere to draw toward and expel from the apertured surface at least a portion of cleaning solution in the cleaning area; and drawing a volume of cleaning solution into apertured surface sufficient to clean remnants of the tested sample target located at and beyond the apertured surface.

20. The method of claim 19 further comprising automating the steps of the method via one or more output signals from a microprocessor executing commands in response to one or more input signals; wherein the microprocessor executes instructions stored in a memory that, when executed by the microprocessor, control the microprocessor to execute the commands.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0089] The accompanying Figures, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several aspects described below.

[0090] FIG. 1A is a schematic of a conventional patch-clamp, modified to enable the present process according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 1B is a schematic of a planar patch-clamp embodiment, modified to enable the present process according to an exemplary embodiment.

[0091] FIG. 2A shows a Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) image of a fresh pipette. FIG. 2B shows an SEM image of a pipette following a traditional patch-clamp trial. FIG. 2C shows an SEM image of a pipette following a traditional patch-clamp trial and a subsequent application of the cleaning method according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

[0092] FIG. 3 is a graph of the gigaseal resistances of ten sequential patch-clamp trials using one pipette that was cleaned according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

[0093] FIGS. 4A-D illustrate that during a whole-cell patch-clamp recording, cell membrane bonds to the inner walls of the pipette (FIG. 4A). A schematic of the present process according to an exemplary embodiment (FIG. 4B). Representative gigaseal formation traces (FIG. 4C). Representative resistances (FIG. 4D).

[0094] FIG. 5 presents three representative gigaseals obtained with fresh pipettes that were pre-cleaned in Alconox. Pre-cleaning did not hinder the formation of stable gigaseals.

[0095] FIGS. 6A-D illustrate recording quality parameters R.sub.GS, T.sub.GS and R.sub.a (whole-cell access resistance) (FIG. 6A). Pipette resistance before and after cleaning with Alconox (FIG. 6B). Change in pipette resistance from first to tenth re-use (FIG. 6C). Representative whole-cell responses to step current injections in different experimental preparations (FIG. 6D).

[0096] FIG. 7 is a graph of gigaseal resistances of thirty re-use attempts with a single pipette over time.

[0097] FIG. 8 illustrates graphs for five pipettes wherein successful attempts resulting in whole-cell recordings are shown.

[0098] FIGS. 9A-C illustrate that LAS is the prevalent cytotoxic ingredient in Alconox. FIG. 9A illustrates the chemical formula for sodium (C10-C16) linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS). How the contents of cleaned pipettes were collected in vials (FIG. 9B). ESI-MS spectrum (FIG. 9C).

[0099] FIG. 10 is a schematic ESI-MS spectrum characterization of pipettes containing 67 g/ml Alconox dissolved in DI water. The main cytotoxic components of Alconox, C10-C12 LAS compounds were identified in the solution (C10: expected m/z: 297.1, found: 297.1; C11: expected m/z: 311.2, found: 311.1; C12: expected m/z: 325.2, found: 325.2).

[0100] FIGS. 11A-D illustrate pipette cleaning in conjunction with GABA.sub.AR pharmacology. Representative current traces recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp recording of HEK293T cells transfected with 122s GABA.sub.ARs (FIG. 11A). Representative normalized peak current responses to different GABA concentrations (FIG. 11B). Dose response characteristics of cells patched with fresh and re-used pipettes (FIG. 11C). That a low dose of Alconox (67 g/mL, or equivalently, 385the detection limit of remaining Alconox in the pipette after cleaning) in the internal solution does not affect dose response characteristics (FIG. 11D).

[0101] FIGS. 12A-B show a pipette containing a high dose (10 mg/mL) of Alconox damages the target cell during a patch attempt. FIG. 12A: A gigaseal fails to form after >3 min, suggesting that Alconox is destroying cell membrane. FIG. 12B: Cell apoptosis during the gigaseal process is evident. Arrow indicates blebs forming on the cell. Scale bar: 10 m.

DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0102] To facilitate an understanding of the principles and features of the various embodiments of the invention, various illustrative embodiments are explained below. Although exemplary embodiments of the invention are explained in detail, it is to be understood that other embodiments are contemplated. Accordingly, it is not intended that the invention is limited in its scope to the details of construction and arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or carried out in various ways. Also, in describing the exemplary embodiments, specific terminology will be resorted to for the sake of clarity.

[0103] It must also be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms a, an and the include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, reference to a component is intended also to include composition of a plurality of components. References to a composition containing a constituent is intended to include other constituents in addition to the one named.

[0104] Also, in describing the exemplary embodiments, terminology will be resorted to for the sake of clarity. It is intended that each term contemplates its broadest meaning as understood by those skilled in the art and includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose.

[0105] Ranges may be expressed herein as from about or approximately or substantially one particular value and/or to about or approximately or substantially another particular value. When such a range is expressed, other exemplary embodiments include from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value.

[0106] Similarly, as used herein, substantially free of something, or substantially pure, and like characterizations, can include both being at least substantially free of something, or at least substantially pure, and being completely free of something, or completely pure.

[0107] By comprising or containing or including is meant that at least the named compound, element, particle, or method step is present in the composition or article or method, but does not exclude the presence of other compounds, materials, particles, method steps, even if the other such compounds, material, particles, method steps have the same function as what is named.

[0108] It is also to be understood that the mention of one or more method steps does not preclude the presence of additional method steps or intervening method steps between those steps expressly identified. Similarly, it is also to be understood that the mention of one or more components in a composition does not preclude the presence of additional components than those expressly identified.

[0109] The materials described as making up the various elements of the invention are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive. Many suitable materials that would perform the same or a similar function as the materials described herein are intended to be embraced within the scope of the invention. Such other materials not described herein can include, but are not limited to, for example, materials that are developed after the time of the development of the invention.

[0110] As shown in FIG. 1A, in an exemplary patch-clamp embodiment of the present invention, the distal end (an apertured surface) of a glass pipette 1 is attached to a single cell 2 in a preparation area 3. The pipette 1 is attached at the proximal end to a pipette holder 4. A cleaning solution chamber 7 containing a cleaning solution and a rinse solution chamber 8 containing rinse solution are situated near the biological preparation area 3. Pressure is applied via a pressure controller 5 to the pipette 1 through the pipette holder 4. A three-axis micromanipulator 6 moves the pipette 1 and the pipette holder 4 in three dimensions.

[0111] As shown in FIG. 1B, in a planar patch-clamp embodiment of the present invention, a cell 9 in an extracellular fluid medium 14 is sealed to (at an apertured surface of) a planar glass electrode 10 at the opening to the intracellular fluid space 11. Pressure is applied via one channel on a pressure controller 12. Cleaning fluid from cleaning fluid chamber 13 is dispensed into the intracellular fluid space 11 via another channel on the pressure controller 12.

[0112] In operation of the system of FIG. 1A, the micromanipulator 6 is used to bring the glass pipette 1 to the preparation area 3 to approach the single cell 2. Negative pressure is applied via the pressure controller 5 and the membrane of the cell 2 adheres to the distal end of the pipette 1.

[0113] Following an electrophysiological experiment, the micromanipulator 6 withdraws the pipette 1 from the cell 2 and expels large, adherent cellular debris from the pipette 1 with high positive pressure from the pressure controller 5. The micromanipulator 6 then moves the pipette 1, under high positive pressure via the pressure controller 5, from the preparation area 3 and into the chamber 7 containing cleaning solution. Pressure is then cycled a number of times between positive pressure and negative pressure with the pressure controller 5 to bring the cleaning solution within the chamber 7 into contact with the interior and exterior surfaces of the pipette 1 and to cyclically apply shear forces to the interior surface of the pipette 1. The micromanipulator 6 then moves the pipette 1, under high positive pressure from the pressure controller 5, from the chamber 7 containing cleaning solution into the chamber 8 containing rinse solution. Pressure is then cycled a number of times between positive pressure and negative pressure with the pressure controller 5 to bring the rinse solution within the chamber 8 into contact with the interior and exterior surfaces of the pipette 1 and to remove any residual cleaning solution from the interior and exterior surfaces of the pipette 1. The micromanipulator 6 then moves the pipette 1, under high positive pressure from the pressure controller 5, from the chamber containing rinse solution 8 and back to the preparation area 3. Subsequent electrophysiological trials can be performed by repeating the steps described above.

[0114] In operation of the system of FIG. 1B, the suspension containing one or more cells 9 in the extracellular fluid medium 14 is passed over an aperture in the planar glass electrode 10 leading to the channel 11 containing intracellular fluid. Suction is applied to the intracellular fluid space 11 via pressure controller 12 to draw the suspended cell 9 to the aperture and form a gigaseal.

[0115] Following the electrophysiological experiment, high pressure is applied to the intracellular space 11 via pressure controller 12 to eject the cell 9 and bulk cellular debris from the aperture. Pressure is applied to the cleaning solution channel 13 via pressure controller 12 to eject cleaning fluid into the intracellular space 11 and bring cleaning fluid into contact with the interior wall of the intracellular channel 11. Simultaneously, pressure is cycled between positive and negative pressure (suction) on the intracellular channel 11 a number of times to cyclically apply shear forces to the surface of intracellular channel 11. The cleaning solution channel 13 is then returned to atmospheric pressure or slight negative pressure via the pressure controller 12 to prevent excess cleaning solution from entering the intracellular space 11. Positive pressure is applied to the intracellular space 11 via pressure controller 12 to eject any remaining debris and residual cleaning chemical. Subsequent electrophysiological trials can be performed by repeating the steps described above.

[0116] FIG. 2 are SEM images of pipette tips. FIG. 2A is an SEM image of a fresh pipette. FIG. 2B shows an SEM image of a pipette tip cleaned with aCSF and being visibly contaminated with cell membrane residue, illustrating the necessity of throwing out the conventional pipette after each use (it cannot be re-used without a viable cleaning and rinsing regime heretofore unknown).

[0117] FIG. 2C is an SEM image of a pipette following the present inventive cleaning and rinsing regime (namely using Alconox), illustrating the capability of pipette re-use. The Alconox-cleaned pipette tip resembles that of the fresh pipette. Pipette filament denoted with *. Scale bar: 1 m.

[0118] FIG. 3 illustrates the resulting gigaseal resistances of ten sequential patch-clamp trials using one pipette that was cleaned with the present method. In 8/10 trials, a gigaseal was successfully established.

[0119] In exemplary embodiments of the present invention shown in FIGS. 4-12, FIGS. 4A-D illustrate cleaning patch-clamp pipettes. During a whole-cell patch-clamp recording, cell membrane bonds to the inner walls of the pipette (FIG. 4A). After the recording is terminated, membrane residue remains, preventing the pipette from being used for subsequent recordings. (FIG. 4B) to clean, (i) the pipette is moved from the experimental preparation to a wash bath where a cleaning agent is cycled within the tip, (ii) then to a rinse bath where the remaining cleaning agent is expelled into aCSF, (iii) and returned back to the experimental preparation. (FIG. 4C) Representative gigaseal formation traces. When using contaminated pipettes cleaned with Alconox, a multi-G seal forms reliably, as would be expected when using a fresh pipette. On the other hand, cleaning with aCSF and bleach does not result in gigaseal formation. R.sub.GS: maximum gigaseal resistance, T.sub.GS: time (s) to reach 1 G (horizontal dashed line). (FIG. 4D). Of the six tested detergents and aCSF, only Alconox reliably achieved gigaseal resistances comparable to those of fresh pipettes (p<0.001; one-way ANOVA with Dunnett's post-hoc test. *: p<0.001; n.s.: not significant, p>0.9). Data shown as means.d.; n for each cleaning agent is shown in parentheses. PLA2: Phospholipase A2; SDS: Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate.

[0120] As discussed above, during a whole-cell patch-clamp recording (FIG. 4A), cell membrane bonds to the inner walls of the pipette. After the recording is terminated, membrane residue remains, preventing the pipette from being used for subsequent recordings. After a recording attempt in an experimental preparation, pipette cleaning is accomplished in three steps (FIG. 4B). First, the pipette is moved to a bath containing a cleaning agent. Using an electronic pressure regulator, a series of alternating negative and positive pressures is applied to the pipette to cycle the cleaning agent within the tip.

[0121] Second, the pipette is moved to a bath containing aCSF. Using another series of pressure pulses, any remaining cleaning agent in the pipette is expelled. Based on the calculated fluid flow rates from pipettes (3 nL/s, based on pipette inner diameter of 1 m), this pressure series is sufficient to intake the cleaning agent at least 200 m into the lumen of the pipette. This exceeds the height of a typical lipid bleb that forms in the pipette tip during a gigaseal (30-60 m).

[0122] Lastly, the pipette is moved back to the experimental preparation. Pipettes can then be immediately re-used for a subsequent patch-clamp attempt. Refilling a pipette with internal solution is unnecessary because pipettes are commonly filled with enough solution for hundreds of attempts. All moving and cleaning steps together require 60 seconds.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Cleaning Solution Source Bleach (8.25% Sodium The Clorox Company hypochlorite) Triton X-100 X100-5 mL (Sigma-Aldrich) Acetone BDH1101 (VWR) Phosopolipase A.sub.2 P7778 (Sigma-Aldrich) (PLA, 0.0001% w/v in 10 mM HEPES buffer) Sodium TCD0990 (VWR) Dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDS, 1% w/v) Alconox (2% w/v) Alconox Inc.

[0123] Alconox was one cleaning agent that enabled pipettes to be re-used in quantities sought. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings on human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) cells were performed using fresh (previously unused) pipettes, cleaned them with one of six different commonly available glassware cleaning agents as shown in TABLE 1, as well as a control solution (aCSF), and attempted to patch another cell with the same pipette. On the second attempt, pipettes cleaned with Alconox, but not with any other cleaning agent, produced gigaseal resistances (R.sub.Gs) that were not significantly different from those produced by fresh pipettes (FIG. 4CD). Successful whole-cell recording rates were not different between fresh and Alconox-cleaned pipettes (fresh=92.6%, Alconox-cleaned=88.9%, p=0.87, Fisher's exact test; other detergents and aCSF=0%).

[0124] Gigaseals were held for 1-2 minutes to ensure stability. No gigaseals were spontaneously lost during this time in either fresh or Alconox-cleaned pipettes. When using Alconox-cleaned pipettes, an outside-out patch reliably formed after withdrawing the pipette from the cell, as would be expected if using fresh pipettes. Further, pre-cleaning fresh pipettes in Alconox had no effect on gigaseal formation. FIG. 5 presents three representative gigaseals obtained with fresh pipettes that were pre-cleaned in Alconox. Pre-cleaning did not hinder the formation of stable gigaseals.

[0125] Using SEM, the tip of the pipettes was confirmed as being cleaned using Alconox but not aCSF (FIGS. 2A-C). Unless stated otherwise, all subsequent experiments used Alconox.

[0126] FIGS. 6A-D illustrate that pipettes can be successfully re-used ten times. (FIG. 6A) Recording quality parameters R.sub.GS, T.sub.GS (defined in FIG. 4C) and R.sub.a (whole-cell access resistance) do not decrease over ten re-uses of the same pipette (n=8 pipettes). Dashed line: 1 G (threshold for gigaseal). Gray circles: individual trials; black circles: representative experiment with a single pipette. Data shown as means.d. (FIG. 6B) Pipette resistance before and after cleaning with Alconox (n=88 pairs, 8 pipettes). (FIG. 6C) Change in pipette resistance from first to tenth re-use. After ten re-uses, resistance changed (R) by median: 0.175 M, max: 0.61 M, min: 0.44 M from fresh pipette. (FIG. 6D) Representative whole-cell responses to step current injections in different experimental preparations. Recordings from HEK293T cells were obtained from the representative experiment (black circles) in (FIG. 6A). In each set, a single pipette is used for all three whole-cell recordings. In all preparations pipettes were re-used up to ten times.

[0127] As discussed above, pipettes could be re-used ten times consecutively with little to no degradation in recording quality if they were cleaned between each patch-clamp attempt (FIG. 6A). 84 HEK293T cells were successfully patched (of n=88 attempts including one fresh and 10 ten; success rate=95%) using eight pipettes, and found no effect of the number of re-uses on gigaseal resistance (R.sub.Gs), the time to reach 1 G (T.sub.GS), and the access resistance of the patched cell (R.sub.a) for each trial (one-way repeated-measures ANOVA with number of re-uses (1-10) as predictor; R.sub.GS: F.sub.10,40=0.99, p=0.46, n=8; T.sub.GS: F.sub.10,40=0.36, p=0.96, n=5, R.sub.a: F.sub.10,40=0.72, p=0.70, n=5).

[0128] Notably, even when pipettes failed to reach a gigaseal (e.g., R.sub.GS<1 G on third, fourth re-use in FIG. 6A), they were successfully cleaned and re-used again, suggesting that gigaseal failures did not irreversibly contaminate the pipette tip. Beyond ten re-uses were not tested to perform a systematic study of pipette longevity; however, a pilot experiment confirmed the suspicion that pipettes could not be re-used indefinitely, when three consecutive failed patch-clamp attempts occurred after 26 re-uses.

[0129] FIG. 7 illustrates the gigaseal resistances of thirty re-use attempts with a single pipette. The pipette was successfully re-used twenty-six times (green circles: R>1 G). The pipette did not reach a gigaseal on the fifth re-use, and consecutively on twenty-seventh through thirtieth re-use (circles: R<1 G). Gigaseal attempts are coded from light to dark according to the number of times the pipette was used. After approximately fourteen re-uses, the time to form a gigaseal increases.

[0130] The patency of the pipette tip is commonly assessed during patch-clamp recording by measuring its electrical resistance. To assess whether cleaning reduced the amount of contamination on the pipette tip, the resistance was measured twice: once immediately after completing a whole-cell recording (before cleaning) and once more after cleaning. As expected, pipette resistance before cleaning was higher than after (FIG. 6B; before: median=5.93 M, range: 4.49 to 15.0 M; after: median=5.77 M, range=4.46 to 6.28 M; p<0.05, Wilcoxon signed-rank test). Over 10 re-uses, the resistance of the pipette did not change significantly (FIG. 6C); p>0.19 for first-tenth re-use, n=8, Wilcoxon signed-rank test). Together, these results suggest that cleaning eliminates residue obstructions on the pipette tip over ten re-uses.

[0131] Repeated patch-clamping in neuron cultures, acute brain slices, and in vivo were done using a single pipette for each experimental preparation (FIG. 6D). Cleaning did not visibly alter action potential generation in these experiments. In brain slices, successful gigaseals and successful whole-cell recordings were attained at similar rates between fresh and cleaned pipettes (gigaseals: fresh=78%, cleaned=82%, p=0.73; whole-cell recordings: fresh=39%, cleaned=48%, p=0.58, Fisher's exact test).

[0132] As shown in FIG. 8, in slices, neurons were recorded and found to have the access resistance stable across that time, indicating that whole-cell recordings obtained using cleaned pipettes are stable over the duration of a typical experiment. For each plot, a single pipette was used. Only successful attempts (resulting in whole-cell recordings) are shown. Cells were held for 20 minutes. Access resistance did not increase for fresh pipettes as well as for pipettes re-used 1-10 times, indicating stable whole-cell recordings. In vivo, the Autopatcher was used to patch-clamp repeatedly with the same pipette in mouse barrel cortex (depths: 400-600 um).

Verifying Detergent Removal after Pipette Cleaning

[0133] A major concern of using any detergent to clean pipettes is that residual surfactants in the pipette could damage the cell or affect its normal biophysical activity during a cell-attached or whole-cell patch-clamp recording. For example, Alconox comprises 33-43% sodium bicarbonate, 10-20% sodium (C10-C16) LAS, 5-15% sodium tripolyphosphate, 5-15% tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 1-10% sodium carbonate, and 1-5% sodium alcohol sulfate. LAS was chosen, a commonly-used surfactant, as a proxy for measuring Alconox concentration remaining after rinsing.

[0134] FIGS. 9A-C illustrate detection of LAS in cleaned pipettes using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). (FIG. 9A) LAS is the prevalent cytotoxic ingredient in Alconox. Alconox is composed of LAS with carbon chains lengths 10-12 (C10-C12). (FIG. 9B) The contents of cleaned pipettes were collected in vials. Known amounts of Alconox were analyzed to find the detection limit. (FIG. 9C) ESI-MS spectrum. C10-C12 LAS is not detectable in cleaned pipettes (top) but is detected in a defined Alconox solution (174 ng/mL Alconox in DI water, bottom), indicating that less than 174 ng/mL of Alconox remains in the pipettes after cleaning. C10: expected m/z: 297.1, found: 297.3; C11: expected m/z: 311.2, found: 311.2; C12: expected m/z: 325.2, found: 325.1.

[0135] As discussed above, the amount of Alconox remaining after cleaning was measured using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). As shown in FIG. 10, only C10-C12 LAS was found in significant quantities in the Alconox solution, so the analysis was focused on this family of compounds (FIG. 9A). No traces of LAS was found in cleaned pipettes (FIG. 9B, C (top)), while the instrumentation detection limit was found to be 174 ng/mL (FIG. 9C (bottom)). Thus, less than 174 ng/mL of Alconox remained in the pipettes after the cleaning procedure. As a control, as shown in FIG. 10, LAS was ensured it could still be detected using ESI-MS when purposefully introduced in small concentrations into the pipette.

[0136] Any effect of trace amounts of Alconox in cleaned pipettes on cell receptor pharmacology would be highly undesirable. Residual LAS could disrupt gigaseal formation, thus decreasing signal quality or, more subtly, interact with amphipathic allosteric modulatory pockets on receptors, thus covertly compromising pharmacological experiments. The -aminobutyric acid type A Receptor (GABA.sub.AR) is highly sensitive to extracellular application of surfactants, including LAS; its intracellular effects have not been thoroughly studied. Nevertheless, it is reasoned that GABAAR could serve as an indicator of adverse effects of Alconox.

[0137] FIGS. 11A-D illustrate pipette cleaning in conjunction with GABAAR pharmacology. (FIG. 11A) Representative current traces recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp recording of HEK293T cells transfected with 122s GABA.sub.ARs. Black bar denotes GABA application (FIG. 11B) Representative normalized peak current responses to different GABA concentrations. The response captured with a fresh pipette is similar to that captured with a used pipette (fourth re-use). (FIG. 11C) Dose response characteristics of cells patched with fresh and re-used pipettes. i.sub.pk: peak evoked current; h: Hill coefficient; EC.sub.50: half-maximal response concentration. No change in the three characteristics is observed over four re-uses. (FIG. 11D) A low dose of Alconox (67 g/mL, or equivalently, 385the detection limit of remaining Alconox in the pipette after cleaning) in the internal solution does not affect dose response characteristics.

[0138] As discussed above, HEK293T cells expressing GABAAR were used as a model system to verify that cleaned pipettes are pharmacologically inert. Patch-clamping using fresh and cleaned pipettes was performed, and fit the measured whole-cell current responses to increasing concentrations of GABA (FIG. 11A) to the Hill equation. Neither the peak evoked current (I.sub.pk), the Hill's coefficient (h), nor the half maximal effective concentration (EC.sub.50) metrics changed as a function of re-uses (linear regression model, H.sub.0: slope0; I.sub.pk: p=0.998, 95% CI: 318 to 317 pA; h: p=0.719, 95% CI: 0.065 to 0.093; EC.sub.50: p=0.751, 95% CI: 6.75 to 4.90).

[0139] This finding demonstrates that GABA concentration-response curves of the patch-clamped cells do not change on a population level as a function of the number of times a pipette has been re-used (FIGS. 11B, C). Overall, pharmacology results obtained using fresh pipettes were indistinguishable from those obtained using cleaned pipettes, suggesting no effect of trace amounts of Alconox on normal receptor function of GABA.sub.ARs.

[0140] It was also found that even if small amounts of Alconox remain in the pipette after cleaning, they do not impact gigaseal formation or GABA.sub.AR pharmacology. When 67 g/mL of Alconox (385 the ESI-MS detection limit) was intentionally dissolved in the pipette internal solution, gigaseals were still reliably achieved in all tested pipettes (n=9). No pharmacological difference between these pipettes and fresh ones was detected (FIG. 11D; I.sub.pk: p=0.37; h: p=0.99; EC.sub.50: p=0.19). On the other hand, when a much larger dose, 10 mg/mL Alconox (0.5the concentration in the wash bath) was added to the pipette, gigaseals did not form and the targeted cell exhibited clear apoptotic blebbing. See, FIGS. 12A-B.

Unattended, Sequential Patch-Clamp Recording

[0141] Previous efforts have partially or fully automated the process of obtaining a single whole-cell recording in vitro as well as in vivo; however, in all of these studies, a trained user was needed to exchange pipettes to start another attempt. Removing this manual step would enable unattended patch-clamp experiments and improve scalability and throughput. To explore this, the pipette cleaning algorithm was integrated into the previously developed Autopatcher software. The resulting robot was tested, which was called patcherBot by first performing patch-clamp recordings in HEK293T cells.

[0142] After the user selected candidate cells for patch-clamp recording, the patcherBot obtained successful gigaseals in 9/10 attempts, and successful whole-cell recordings in 6/10 attempts over the span of 33 minutes of unattended operation using a single pipette. The patcherBot was also deployed to perform blind, in vivo patch-clamp recordings in the mouse barrel cortex. Using four pipettes, the robot obtained successful gigaseals in 13/34 attempts, and successful whole-cell recordings in 10/34 attempts over a total span of 171 minutes in vivo (FIG. 6D).

Discussion

[0143] Discovering that pipettes could be reliably cleaned and re-used multiple times was surprising given the dogmatic, decades-long practice of replacing pipettes after each patch-clamp attempt. The present simple, fast, and automated procedure comprises dipping pipettes into a commercially-available detergent, Alconox, followed by rinsing in aCSF. It is herein demonstrated the effectiveness of this cleaning method by re-using pipettes ten times, with no decrease in whole-cell recording quality in cultured cells, acute brain slices, and in vivo. After cleaning, the residual Alconox mass concentration in the pipettes was quantified to be less than 174 ng/mL, and shown to have no pharmacological effect on GABA.sub.ARs. Since pipette cleaning is automatic, it was integrated into the Autopatcher to perform unattended, sequential patch-clamp recordings on HEK293T cells in vitro and neurons in vivo.

[0144] Alconox is composed of a surfactant, emulsifier and water softener, and in solution, it interacts with cell membranes bound to the glass pipette tip. These three ingredients solubilize adhered lipids, stabilize the lipid micelles in solution, and enhance surfactant effectiveness, respectively. After testing various cleaning agents, it was not evident why only Alconox sufficiently cleaned pipettes to enable their re-use. Interestingly, prior studies used bleach to successfully clean planar borosilicate patch-clamp chips up to five times for whole-cell recording; yet in the present experiments using conventional pipettes, bleach did not work, suggesting that the geometry of the experimental preparation may influence cleaning effectiveness.

[0145] Overall, the precise mechanism of how cell membranes bond with glass during a gigaseal is still not understood despite notable efforts, making it difficult to devise a cleaning strategy from basic principles. A detailed biochemical study of gigaseal formation could therefore greatly inform efforts to optimize cleaning, and potentially increase the number of re-uses.

[0146] While it has herein been demonstrated that cleaning does not affect the ion channel pharmacology of GABA.sub.ARs, it was not exhaustively tested that the method in cells expressing other proteins. While several studies have characterized the effects of extracellularly applied detergents on various receptors, the intracellular effect of LAS in small concentrations is not well-understood. Thus to verify general applicability, the method should be validated using more channels, receptors, and cell types.

[0147] For many patch-clamp experiments, pipette internal solution contains ingredients that degrade over time if not refrigerated (e.g. Adenosine 5-triphosphate magnesium salt, Guanosine 5-triphosphate sodium salt hydrate, phosphocreatine); thus, it is expected that pipettes after multiple cleanings will have reduced concentrations of these ingredients. It is hypothesized that maintaining a chilled (i.e., 4 C.) environment for pipette and internal solution, or devising a method for replacing internal solution after every trial could mitigate this deleterious effect.

[0148] The cleaning process is typically faster than manually swapping pipettes (i.e., one minute versus approximately two minutes) and does not depend on operator experience, dexterity, or fatigue level. It requires no complex hardware additions to existing electrophysiology setups and no expensive or caustic reagents. Therefore, it can be readily integrated into different experimental preparations and coupled with existing techniques that complement patch-clamp such as extracellular stimulation, two-photon microscopy, and optogenetics.

[0149] Pipette cleaning also facilitates experiments requiring specialized pipette tips. Various tip polishing techniques (using heat, pressure, or focused ion beam) and coatings can improve the ability to obtain recordings and their quality; however, these techniques are typically too time-consuming to be routine. The ability to re-use these custom-shaped pipettes could make these involved techniques more practical and scalable, reducing the need for automated pipette fabrication and inspection.

[0150] Further, the need for trained users to manually exchange pipettes is still a barrier to large-scale patch-clamp studies in the brain. In creating the patcherBot, the first robot to successfully patch-clamp multiple cells without human intervention was demonstrated. In addition to automation, cleaning could also greatly facilitate simultaneous multi-patch (i.e. dual, quadruple, octuple, etc.) experiments that have been instrumental in elucidating single-cell connectivity patterns in the brain. Since cleaning is faster than manual pipette exchange and requires no human intervention, it could increase the number and duration of simultaneous recordings.

[0151] Numerous characteristics and advantages have been set forth in the foregoing description, together with details of structure and function. While the invention has been disclosed in several forms, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many modifications, additions, and deletions, especially in matters of shape, size, and arrangement of parts, can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention and its equivalents as set forth in the following claims. Therefore, other modifications or embodiments as may be suggested by the teachings herein are particularly reserved as they fall within the breadth and scope of the claims here appended.